Ap World History Midterm

Front 1

Neolithic Age

Back 1

final Stone age
-invention of agriculture, the creation of cities, and other foreshadowings of civilization, which ended the Stone age altogether throughout much of the world

Front 2

Neolithic Revolution

Back 2

allowed people to settle more permanently in one area
-agriculture required more regular work, at least of men, than hunting did.
-agriculture supported larger populations, and with better food supplies and a more settled existence, agricultural people could afford to build houses and villages

Front 3

Bronze Age

Back 3

4000 B.C.E.- 3000 B.C.E
-by about 3000 B.C.E., metalworking had become so commonplace in the Middle East that the use of stone tools dissipated, and long stone ages were over at last

Front 4

slash and burn agriculture

Back 4

people would burn off trees in an area, farm intensively for a few years until the soil was depleted, them move on

Front 5

bands

Back 5

herding people moved in tribal bands, with strong kinship ties

Front 6

Catal Huyuk

Back 6

neolithic village that has been elaborately studied bu archeologists.
-found in 7000 B.C.E.and was unusually large, covering about 32 acres
-houses were made of mud bricks set in timber frameworks, crowded together, with few windows

Front 7

civilization

Back 7

-some scholars prefer to define civilization only as societies with enough economic surplus to form divisions of labor and a social hierarchy involving significant inequalities
-involves the emergence of formal political oganizations, or states, as opposed to dependence on family or tribal ties
-most civilizations produce political units capable of ruling large regions, and some characteristically produce huge kingdoms or empires

Front 8

cuneiform

Back 8

writing based on wedgelike characters developed in the Middle East around 3500 B.C.E.

Front 9

nomads

Back 9

people who move from place to place
was considered as "barbarians" to many civilizations

Front 10

Mesopotamia

Back 10

-founded in the valley of Tigris and Euphrates
-by 4000 B.C.E., the farmers of Mesopotamia were familiar with bronze and copper and had already invented the wheel for transportation
-had a well-established pottery industry and interesting artistic forms

Front 11

Sumerians

Back 11

-by about 3500 B.C.E., sumerians invaded Mesopotamia
-developed cuneiform
-sumerian art developed steadily, as statues and painted frescoes were used to adorn the temples of gods
-developed ziggurats and Hammurabi's Code, and organized city- states (these explained in other cards)

Front 12

ziggurats

Back 12

massive towers that formed the first monumental architecture in this civilization

Front 13

city-states

Back 13

-sumerian political structures stressed tightly organized city-states, ruled by a king who claimed divine authority
-sumerian state had carefully defined boundaries, unlike the less formal territories of precivilized villages in the region

Front 14

Babylonians

Back 14

Sumerians --> Akkadians --> Babylonians
-extended their own empire and thus helped bring civilization to other parts of Middle East

Front 15

Hammurabi

Back 15

-established rules of procedure for courts of law and regulated property rights and duties of family members, setting harsh punishments for crimes

Front 16

pharaoh

Back 16

king who possessed immense power in the Egyptian civilization

Front 17

pyramids

Back 17

-Egyptian pharaohs built splendid tombs for themselves
-from 2700 B.C.E. onward

Front 18

Kush

Back 18

an African state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile (1000 B.C.E.)
-conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries

Front 19

Indus River

Back 19

a prosperous urban civilization emerged along the Indus River by 2500 B.C.E., supporting several citires, including Harrapa and Mohenjo Daro*, whose houses even had running water
-Indus River peoples had trading contacts with Mesopotamia, but they developed their own distinctive alphabet and artistic forms

Front 20

Huanghe (Yellow River)

Back 20

civilization along the Yellow River in China developed in considerable isolation, although some overland trading contact with India and Middle East did develop
-Huanghe civilization was the subject of much later Chinese legend, which praised the godlike kings of early civilization, starting with the mythic ancestor of the Chinese, P'an Ku.

Front 21

ideographic

Back 21

writing progressed from knotted ropes to scratches of lines on bone

Front 22

Shang

Back 22

by about 1500 B.C.E, a line of kings called the Shang ruled over the Huanghe valley, and these rulers did construct some impressive tombs and palaces

Front 23

Phoenicians

Back 23

devised a greatly simplified alphabet with 22 letters around 1300 B.C.E; this alphabet, in turn, became the predecessor of Greek and Latin alphabets
-improved the Egyptian numbering system
-set up colony cities in north Africa and on the coast of Europe

Front 24

Dao

Back 24

harmony; avoid excess and appreciating the balance of opposites

Front 25

Confucius

Back 25

wrote an elaborate statement on political ethics, providing the core of China's distinctive philosophical heritage

Front 26

Qin

Back 26

ruler was Shi Huangdi

Front 27

Shi Huangdi

Back 27

was a brutal ruler, but effective given the circumstances of internal disorder
-worked vigorously to undo the problem that lay in the regional power of the aristocrats
-ordered nobles to leave their regions and appear at his court, assuming control of their feudal estates
-under Shi Huangdi's rules, powerful armies crushed regional resistance and China was organized into large provinces ruled by bureaucrats appointed by him

Front 28

Han

Back 28

-202 B.C.E
-lasted over 400 years to 220 C.E., rounded out China's basic political and intellectual structures
-Han rulers retained the centralized administration of the Win but sought to reduce the brutal repression of that period

Front 29

Alexander the Great

Back 29

invaded India, and when he did not establish a durable empire, he did allow important Indian contacts with Hellenistic culture

Front 30

The Hercules is a:

Back 30

C-130

Front 31

Monsoon

Back 31

-crucial for farming
-rains that vary from year to year, sometimes bringing too little rain or coming too late and causing famine producing drought, or sometimes bringing catastrophic floods
-in a year with favorable monsoons, Indian farmers were able to plant and harvest two crops an could thus support a seizable population

Front 32

Sanskrit

Back 32

the first literary language of the new Aryan culture

Front 33

Vedas

Back 33

sacred books that were written in Sanskrit
-originally developed by the Aryans

Front 34

Aryan

Back 34

during the Vedic and Epic ages of India, migrants- hunting and herding people originally from central Asia- gradually came to terms with agriculture but had their own impact on the culture and social structure of their new home
-Indian agriculture extended from the Indus River valley to the more fertile Ganges valley, as the Aryans used iron tools to clear away the dense vegetation

Front 35

Varnas

Back 35

Aryan social classes that partly enforced divisions familiar in agricultural societies
-a warrior or governing class, the Kshatriyas, and the priestly class, or Brahmans, stood at the top of the social pyramid, followed by Vaisyas, the traders and farmers, and Sudras, or common laborers

Front 36

untouchables

Back 36

a fifth group of the Aryan (Indian) social classes
-confined to a few jobs, such as transporting the bodies of the dead or hauling refuse
-widely believed that touching these people would defile anyone from a superior class

Front 37

Indra

Back 37

the god of thunder and strength (Aryan; India)

Front 38

Chandragupta Maurya

Back 38

in 322 B.C.E, a young soldier named Chandragupta Maurya seized power along the Ganges River in China.
0became the frist of the Mauryan dynasty of INdian rulers, who in turn were the first rulers to unify much of the entire subcontinent
-maintained large armies, with thousands of chariots and elephant-borne troops

Front 39

Ashoka

Back 39

Chandragupta's grandson who was an even greater figure in history
-first serving as a governor of two provinces, Ashoka enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, with frequent horseback riding and feasting
-worked to improve trade and communication, sponsoring an extensive road network dotted with wells and rest stops for travelers

Front 40

Kushans

Back 40

new invaders who pushed into central India from the northwest

Front 41

Gupta

Back 41

a new line of kings who established a large empire in India, beginning in 320 C.E.
-Gupta rulers often preferred to negotiate with local princes and intermarry with their families, which expanded influence without constant fighting
-two centuries of Gupta rule brought India political stability, although the Guptas did not administer as large a territory as the Mauryan kings did
-was overturned in 535 C.E. by the Huns

Front 42

Kautilya

Back 42

Chandragupta's chief minister who wrote an important treatise on politics but it was devoted to telling rulers what methods would work to maintain power-- somewhat like the Legalists in China

Front 43

gurus

Back 43

mystics in India who gathered disciples around them, and the brahman priests agreed on certain doctrines, as Hinduism became an increasingly formal religion by the first centuries of the common era

Front 44

Vishnu & Shiva

Back 44

examples of gods who the divine aspects of Brahma in India were manifested in
-Vishnu: the preserver
-Shiva: the destroyer, who could be worshiped or placated (calmed) as expressions of the holy essence

Front 45

reincarnation

Back 45

-principle that Hindus stressed
-souls do not die when bodies do but pass into other beings, either human or animal
-where the souls goes, whether it rises to a higher- caste person or falls perhaps to an animal, depends on how good a life the person has led
-ultimately, after many good lives, the soul reaches full union with the soul of brahma, and world suffering ceases

Front 46

nirvana

Back 46

Buddha did not reject the possibility of rewards after life, but he saw salvation as arising from the destruction of the self, whose annihilation opens the door to realm where suffering and decay are no more, literally a world beyond existence itself: nirvana
-individuals could regulate their lives and aspirations toward this goal, without elaborate ceremonies

Front 47

stupas

Back 47

-Ashoka sponsored many spherical shrines to Buddha, called stupas

Front 48

Cyrus the Great

Back 48

by 550 B.C.E., Cyrus the Great established a massive Persian Empire across the northern Middle East and into northwestern India

Front 49

Zoroastrianism

Back 49

-developed by Persians
-Animist religion that saw material existence as battle between forces of good and evil; stressed the importance of moral choice; righteous lived on after death in "House of Song"; chief religion of Persian Empire

Front 50

Pericles

Back 50

-during the 5th century B.C.E., that the most famous Greek political figure, Pericles, dominated Athenian politics
-was an aristocrat, but he was part of a democratic political structure in which each citizen could participate in city-state assemblies to select officials and pass laws
-ruled through wise influence and negotiation
-helped restrain some of the more aggressive view of the Athenian democrats, who urged even further expansion of the empire to garner more wealth and build the economy

Front 51

Peloponnesian Wars

Back 51

-431-404 B.C.E.
-war between Athens and Sparta for control of Greece

Front 52

Philip II of Macedon

Back 52

won the crucial battle of the Peloponnesian War in 338 B.C.E., and then his son Alexander extended the Macedonian Empire through the Middle East, across Persia to the border of India, and southward through Egypt

Front 53

Hellenistic period

Back 53

Greek art and culture merged with other Middle Eastern forms
-name derived because of the influence of the Hellenes, ad the Greeks were known
-trade flourished and important scientific centers were established in such cities as Alexandria in Egypt
-saw the consolidation of Greek civilization even after the political decline of the peninsula itself, as well as some important new cultural developments

Front 54

Punic Wars

Back 54

-264- 146 B.C.E.
-Rome fought the armies of the Phoenician city of Carthage*, situated on the northern coast of Africa
-included a bloody defeat of the invading forces of the brilliant Carthaginian general Hannibal, whose troops were accompanied by pack-laden elephants

Front 55

Augustus Caesar

Back 55

-Julius' grandnephew who seized power in 27 B.C.E, following another period of rivalry after Julius Caesar's assassination, and established the basic structures of the Roman Empire

Front 56

Diocletian & Constantine

Back 56

strong emperors who attempted to reverse the falling economy of Rome

Front 57

polis

Back 57

-city-state which correctly suggests that intense political interests were part of life in a city-state in both Greece and and Rome
-the "good life" for an upper- class Athenian or Roman included active participation in politics and frequent discussions about the affairs of state

Front 58

direct democracy

Back 58

major decisions were made by general assemblies in which all could participate- although usually only a minority attended
-not ruled through elected representatives
-Greece

Front 59

Roman Senate

Back 59

legislative body in Rome composed mainly of aristocrats, whose members held virtually all executive offices in the Roman state

Front 60

consul

Back 60

shared primary executive power in Rome with the Senate, but in times of crisis, the Senate could choose a dictator to hold emergency authority until the crisis had passed

Front 61

Cicero

Back 61

Roman writers who expounded eloquently on appropriate political ethics, the duties of citizens, importance of incorruptible service, and key political skills such as oratory

Front 62

Aristotle

Back 62

philosopher who stressed the importance of moderation and balance in human behavior as opposed to the instability of much political life and excesses of the gods themselves

Front 63

Stoics

Back 63

system that emphasized an inner moral independence, to be cultivated by strict discipline of the body and by personal bravery

Front 64

Socrates

Back 64

-born in 469 B.C.E
-encourage his pupils to question conventional wisdom, on the grounds that the chief human duty was "the improvement of the soul."

Front 65

Plato

Back 65

-Socrates great pupil who accentuated the positive somewhat more strongly by suggesting that human reason could approach an understanding of the three perfect forms- True, Good, and Beautiful- which he believed characterized nature

Front 66

Sophocles

Back 66

Athenian dramatist who so insightfully portrayed the psychological flaws of his hero Oedipus that modern psychology long used the term, "Oedipus complex" to refer to a potentially unhealthy relationship between a man and his mother

Front 67

Doric, Ionic, Corinthian

Back 67

columns supporting Greeks' massive buildings

Front 68

Axum & Ethiopia

Back 68

-Axum defeated the kingdom of Kush in Africa by about 300 B.C.E & then, Ethiopia defeated Axum
-Axum and Ethiopia had active contacts with the eastern Mediterranean world until after the fall of Rome

Front 69

Silk Road

Back 69

roads that ran from western China across the mountains and steppes of central Asia to the civilized centers of Mesopotamia in the last millennium B.C.E. and to Rome, the Islamic heartlands, and western Europe in the first millennium and a half C.E.

Front 70

Shintoism

Back 70

Japan's religion
-provided for the worship of political rulers and the spirits of nature, including the all- important god of rice

Front 71

Olmec culture

Back 71

-American civilization (Central America)
-explored artistic forms in precious stones such as jade
-religious statues and icons blended human images with those of animals
-powerfully influenced later Indian civilizations in Central America
-scientific research produced accurate and impressive calendars

Front 72

Teotihuacan

Back 72

-the first city developed by the Olmecs in the Americas
-developed for trade and worship

Front 73

Maya

Back 73

American civilization from about 400 C.E. onward

Front 74

Inca

Back 74

civilization the arose in the Andes region in present-day Peru and Bolivia, where careful agriculture allowed construction of elaborate cities and religious monuments

Front 75

Polynesian

Back 75

people who have reached islands such as Fiji and Samoa by 1000 B.C.E. in the American civilization
-further exploration in giant outrigger canoes led to the first settlement of island complexes such as Hawaii by 400 C.E., where the Polynesians adapted local plants, brought in new animals (notably pigs), and imported a highly stratified caste system under powerful local kings

Front 76

Yellow Turbans

Back 76

Daoist leaders who promised a golden age that was to be brought about by divine magic
-attacked the weakness of the emperor but also the self- indulgence of the current bureaucracy

Front 77

Tang Dynasty

Back 77

sponsored one of the most glorious periods in Chinese history
-Confucianism and the bureaucratic system were revived, and indeed the bureaucratic tradition became more elaborate

Front 78

Rajput

Back 78

regional princes in India who controlled the small states and emphasized military prowess

Front 79

Devi

Back 79

mother goddess who was worshiped by Hinduists
-led to encouragement of a new popular emotionalism in religious ritual

Front 80

Byzantine Empire

Back 80

eastern empire of Rome
-was a product of late imperial Rome, rather than balanced result of the entire span of classical Mediterranean civilization
-language was Greek

Front 81

Justinian

Back 81

emperor of Byzantine Empire who ruled from 527 to 565 C.E.
-issued one of the most famous compilations of Roman law, in the code that bore his name
-his was the last effort to restore Mediterranean unity

Front 82

Augustine

Back 82

one of the greatest Christian theologians who was a bishop in north Africa

Front 83

Coptic

Back 83

church in Egypt that still survives as a Christian minority in that country

Front 84

bodhisattvas

Back 84

held that some people could attain nirvana through their own medication while choosing to remain in the world as saints and to aid others by prayer and example

Front 85

Mayan

Back 85

eastern form of Buddhism which retained abck Buddhist beliefs

Front 86

Islam

Back 86

submission*
-the self-surrender of the believer to the will of the one, true God, Allah

Front 87

Muslims

Back 87

followers of Islam who conquered an empire extending from Spain in the west to central Asia in the east-- an empire that combined the classical civilizations of Greece, Egypt, and Persia

Front 88

Qur'an

Back 88

the holy book containing Allah's revelation to Muhammad

Front 89

bedouin

Back 89

nomadic
-In the scrub zones of the Arabian peninsula on the edges of the empty quarters, or uninhabitable desert zones, a wide variety of bedouin, cultures had developed over the centuries, based on camel and goat herding

Front 90

shaykhs

Back 90

leaders of the tribes and clans elected by the elder advisors of the Arabian government
-they were almost always men with large herds, several wives, many children, and numerous retainers

Front 91

Mecca

Back 91

located in the mountainous region along the Red Sea on the western coast of Arabia
-was one of the most important cities that developed farther north as links in the transcontinental trading system that stretched from the Mediterraneans to east Asia

Front 92

Umayyad

Back 92

The Mecca city has been found by the Ummayad clan of the Quraysh bedouin tribe, and members of the clan dominated its politics and commercial economy

Front 93

Ka'ba

Back 93

one of the most revered religious shrines in pre- Islamic Arabia
-not only did the shrine attract pilgrims and customers for Mecca's bazaars, but at certain times of the year it was the focus of an obligatory truce in the interclan feuds

Front 94

Medina

Back 94

was originally named Yathrib in the northeast of Mecca
-another name was the city of Muhammad

Front 95

Khadijah

Back 95

-the widow of a wealthy merchant
-his life as a merchant in Mecca and on the caravan routes exposed Muhammad to the world beyond Arabia and probably made him acutely aware of the clan rivalries that has divided the peoples of the region for millennia

Front 96

Ali

Back 96

Muhmmad's clansman who at one point took Muhammad's place (when he was in danger) and thus risked becoming the target of assassins
-secured in 622 the safe passage of Muhammad and a small band of followers from Mecca to Medina -- the hijra, or flight to Medina, which marks the first year of the Islamic calendar

Front 97

umma

Back 97

community of the faithful that went beyond or exceeded old tribal boundaries in Arabia and it made possible a degree of political unity undreamed of before Muhammad's time

Front 98

zakat

Back 98

tax for charity that was obligatory in the Islamic faith

Front 99

five pillars

Back 99

1.) the confession of faith was simple and powerful: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet."
2.) to pray, facing the holy city of Mecca, five times a day
3.) to fast during the month of Ramadan, enhanced community solidarity and allowed the faithful to demonstrate their fervor
4.) the zakat, or charity, also strengthened community cohesion and won converts from those seeking an ethical code that stressed social responsibility and the unity of all believers.
5) hajj, or pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, to worship Allah at the Ka'ba, drew together the faithful from Morocco to China

Front 100

caliph

Back 100

the political and religious successor to Muhammad

Front 101

Abu Bakr

Back 101

caliph from 632 to 634
-Muhammad's earliest followers and closest friends
-during when he was caliph, he was well versed in the genealogical histories of the bedouin tribes, which meant that he knew which tribes could be turned against each other and which ones could be enticed into alliances

Front 102

Ridda Wars

Back 102

-the defeat of rival prophets and some of the larger clans that soon brought about the return of the Arabian tribes to the Islamic fold

Front 103

jihads

Back 103

holy wars launched to forcibly spread of the Muslim faith, which has long been associated with Islam in the Christian West, misrepresents the forces behind the early Arab expansion

Front 104

Copts and Nestorians

Back 104

Christian sects of Egypt; tended to support Islamic invasions of this area in preference to Byzantine rule

Front 105

Uthman

Back 105

third caliph;
-his murder caused conflict by mutinous warriors retuning from Egypt
-his death was the signal for the supporters of Ali to proclaim him as caliph
-Uthman's unpopularity among many of the tribes, including those from the Medina and the prophet's earliest followers, arose in part from the fact that he was the first caliph to be chosen from Muhammad's early enemies, the Umayyad clan

Front 106

Battle of Siffin

Back 106

fought in 657 between forces of Ali and Umayyads; settled by negotiation that led to fragmentation of Ali's party

Front 107

Mu'awiya

Back 107

new leader of the Umayyads in 660
-was proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem, directly challenging Ali's position

Front 108

Sunnis & Shi'a

Back 108

the split between the Sunnis*, who backed the Umayyads, and the Shi'a*, or supporters of Ali, remains to this day the most fundamental in the Islamic world
-hostility between these two branches of the Islamic faithful was heightened in the years after Ali's death by the continuing struggle between the Umayyads and Ali's second son, Husayn

Front 109

Karbala

Back 109

site of death and defeat of Husayn, son of Ali; marked beginning of Shi'a resistance to Umayyad caliphate

Front 110

Damascus

Back 110

the political center of community for the Umayyads & also where the Umayyads chose to live after the murder of Uthman
-from Damascus, a succession of Umayyad caliphs strove to build a bureaucracy that would bind together the vast domains they claimed to rule

Front 111

Mawali

Back 111

Muslim converts or non-Arab converts to Islam

Front 112

jizya

Back 112

head tax paid by all non-believers in Islamic territories

Front 113

dhimmi

Back 113

the greater portion of the population of the Umayyad empire
-"people of the book"
-as the name suggests, it was originally applied to Christians and Jews who shared the Bible with the Muslims

Front 114

hadiths

Back 114

traditions of the prophet, Muhammad, that have played such a critical role in Islamic law and ritual
-were recorded by woman

Front 115

Abassid

Back 115

party that traced its descent from Muhammad's uncle. al- Abbas
-openly challenged Umayyad armies by 747
-their great leader, Abu al Abbas, the great great grandson of Muhammad's uncle, led his forces from victory to victory

Front 116

Battle on the River Zab

Back 116

victory of Abassids over Umayyads; resulted in conquest of Syria and capture of Umayyad capital

Front 117

Baghdad

Back 117

capital of the Abassids

Front 118

dhows

Back 118

Arab sailing vessels with lateen (triangular) sails that later influenced European ship design
-carried the goods of one civilized core to be exchanged with those of another

Front 119

ayan

Back 119

wealthy and deeply entrenched landed elite who emerged in the early decades of Abassid rule

Front 120

al- Mahdi

Back 120

-(775- 785)
-third Abassid caliph
-Al- Mahdi's efforts to reconcile the moderates among the Shi'a opposition to Abassid rule ended in failure
-also abandoned the frugal ways of his predecessor

Front 121

Harun al- Rashid

Back 121

one of the most famous and enduring of the Abassid caliphs
-786- 809

Front 122

Buyids

Back 122

regional splinter dynasty of the mid-10th century; invaded and captured Baghdad; ruled Abassid Empire under the name of "sultan"; retained Abassids as figureheads

Front 123

Seljuk Turks

Back 123

group of nomadic invaders
-for the next two centuries, Turkic military leaders rule the remaining portions of the Abassid Empire in the name of caliphs, who were usually of Arab or Persian extraction
-Seljuks were staunch Sunnis, and moved to quickly to purge the Shi'a officials who had risen to power under the Buyids and to rid the caliph's domains of the Shi'a influences the Buyids had tired to promote

Front 124

Crusades

Back 124

-series of military adventures initially launched by western Christians to free Holy Land from Muslims; temporarily succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Christian kingdoms; later sued for other purposes such as commercial wars and extermination of heresy

Front 125

Saladin

Back 125

Muslim leader in the last decades of the 12th century; reconquered most of the crusader outposts for Islam

Front 126

ulama

Back 126

orthodox religious scholars who grew increasingly suspicious of and hostile to non- Islamic ideas and scientific thinking

Front 127

al- Ghazali

Back 127

brilliant thinker who was perhaps the greatest Islamic theologian
-struggled to fuse the Greek and Qur'anic traditions. Their ideas were often rejected by orthodox scholars (ulama).

Front 128

Mongols

Back 128

central Asian nomadic people who were united by their great war commander, Chinggis Khan*, who first raided in the 1220s and then smashed the Turko- Persian kingdoms that had developed in the regions to the east of Baghdad.
-Chinggis Khan died before the heartlands of the Muslim world were invaded, but his grandson, Hulegu*, renewed the Mongol assault on the rich centers of Islamic civilization in the 1250s

Front 129

Mamluks

Back 129

Turkic slaves who defeated the Mongols
-after defeat, they ruled Egypt

Front 130

Muhammad ibn Quasim

Back 130

Arab general
-conquered Sind in India; declared the region and the Indus valley to be part of Umayyad Empire

Front 131

Mahmud of Ghazni

Back 131

third ruler of Turkish slave dynasty in Afghanistan; led invasions of northern India; credited with sacking one of wealthiest of Hindu temples in northern India; gave Muslims reputation for intolerance and aggression

Front 132

Muhammad of Ghur

Back 132

Military commander of Persian extraction who ruled small mountain kingdom in Afghanistan; began process of conquest to establish Muslim political control of northern India; brought much of Indus valley, Sind, and northwestern India under his control

Front 133

Qutb- ud- din Aibak

Back 133

Lieutenant of Muhammad of Ghur; established kingdom of India with capital at Delhi; proclaimed himself Sultan of India

Front 134

bhaktic cults

Back 134

Hindu groups dedicated to gods and goddesses; stressed the importance of strong emotional bonds between devotees and the god or goddess who was object of their veneration; most widely worshiped gods were Shiva and Vishnu

Front 135

sati

Back 135

the burning of widows on the same funeral pyres as their deceased husbands, which was found among some high- caste Hindu groups

Front 136

Mira Bai

Back 136

celebrated Hindu writer of religious poetry; reflected openness of bhaktic cults to women

Front 137

Kabir

Back 137

Muslim mystic during 15th century; played down the importance of ritual differences between Hinduism and Islam

Front 138

Demak

Back 138

most powerful of the trading states on north coast of Java; converted to Islam and serve as point of dissemination to other ports

Front 139

Malacca

Back 139

Portuguese factory or fortified trade town located on the tip of the Malayan peninsula; traditionally a center for trade among the southeastern Asian islands

Front 140

Shrivijaya

Back 140

far-flung trading empire that was centured on the Strait of Malacca between Malaya and the northeast of Sumatra
-opened the way for the widespread introduction of Islam
-Even though the Indian traders were welcome to trade in chain of ports controlled by Shrivijaya, there was little incentive for the traders and sailors of southeast Asian ports of convert to Islam due to the rulers and officials of Shrivijaya being devout Buddhists

Front 141

stateless societies

Back 141

societies that were organized around kinship or other forms of obligation and lacking the concentration of political power and authority we normally associate with the state

Front 142

Ifriqiya

Back 142

the Arabic term for eastern north Africa

Front 143

Maghrib

Back 143

the Arabic word for western north Africa

Front 144

Almoravids

Back 144

a puritanical reformist movement among the Islamic Berber tribes of northern Africa; controlled gold trade across Sahara; conquered Ghana in 1076; moved southward against African kingdoms of the savanna and westward into Spain

Front 145

Almohadis

Back 145

reformist movement among the Islamic Berbers of northern Africa; later than the Almoravids; penetrated into sub-Sahara Afirca

Front 146

sahel

Back 146

the extensive grassland belt at the southern edge of the Sahara; a point of exchange between the forests to the south and northern Africa

Front 147

Sudanic states

Back 147

kingdoms that developed during the height of Ghana's power in the region; based at Takrur on the Senegal River to the west and Gao on the Niger Rive to the east; included Mali and Songhay

Front 148

juula

Back 148

malinke merchants; formed small partnerships to carry out trade throughout Mali Empire; eventually spread throughout much of west Africa

Front 149

Sundiata

Back 149

the "Lion Price"; a member of the Keita clan; created a unified state that became the Mali Empire; died about 1260

Front 150

griots

Back 150

professional oral historians who served as keepers of traditions and advisors to kings within the Mali Empire

Front 151

Ibn Batuta

Back 151

Arabic traveler who described African societies and cultures in his travel records

Front 152

Timbuktu

Back 152

port city of Mali; located just off the flood plain on the great bend in the Niger River; population of 50000; contained a library and university

Front 153

Songhay

Back 153

successor state to Mali; dominated middle reaches of Niger valley; formed as independent kingdom under a Berber dynasty; capital at Gao; reached imperial status under Sunni Ali

Front 154

Muhammad the Great

Back 154

Extended the boudnaries of the Songhay Empire; Islamic ruler of the mid- 16th century

Front 155

Hausa

Back 155

peoples of northern Nigeria; formed states following the demise of Songhay Empire that combined Muslim and pagan traditions

Front 156

Zenj

Back 156

Arabic term for the east African coast

Front 157

Nok

Back 157

culture featuring highly developed art style flourishing between 500 B.C.E.

Front 158

Yoruba

Back 158

city-states developed in northern Nigeria c. 1200 C.E.; Ile- Ife featured artistic style possibly related to earlier Nok culture; agricultural societies supported by peasantry and dominated by ruling family and aristocracy

Front 159

Benin

Back 159

powerful city- state (in present-day Nigeria) which came into contact with the Portuguese in 1485 but remained relatively free of European influence; important commercial and political entity until the 19th century

Front 160

Kongo

Back 160

Kingdom, based on agriculture, formed on lower Congo River by late 15th century; capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy

Front 161

Great Zimbabwe

Back 161

Bantu confederation of Shona-speaking peoples located between Zambezi and Limpopo rivers; developed after 9th century; featured royal courts built of stone; created centralized state by 15th century; king took title of Mwene Mutapa

Front 162

Hagia Sophia

Back 162

huge new church, which was long one of the wonders of the Christian world
-this was an achievement in engineering as well as architecture, for no one had previously been able to build the supports needed for a dome of its size

Front 163

Belisarius

Back 163

one of Justinian's most important military commanders during period of reconquest of western Europe; commanded in north Africa and Italy

Front 164

Greek fire

Back 164

Byzantine weapon consisting of mixture of chemicals that ignited when exposed to water; utilized to drive back the Arab fleets that attacked Constantinople

Front 165

Bulgaria

Back 165

Slavic kingdom established in northern portions of Balkan peninsula; constant source of pressure on Byzantine Empire; defeated by Emperor Basil II in 1014

Front 166

icon

Back 166

images of religious figures that became objects of veneration within Christianity of the Byzantine Empire; particularly prevalent in Eastern monasticism

Front 167

iconoclasm

Back 167

religious controversy within the Byzantine Empire in the 8th century; emperor attempted to suppress veneration of icons; literally "breaking of images"; after long struggle, icon veneration was restored

Front 168

Cyril & Methodius

Back 168

missionaries sent by Byzantine government to eastern Europe and the Balkans; converted southern Russia and Balkans to Orthodox Christianity; responsible for creation of written script for Slavic known as Cyrillic

Front 169

Kiev

Back 169

trade city in southern Russia established by Scandinavian traders in 9th century; became focal point for kingdom of Russia that flourished to 12th century

Front 170

Rurik

Back 170

legendary Scandinavian, regarded as founder of the first kngdom of Russia based in Kiev in 855 C.E.

Front 171

Vladmir I

Back 171

a Rurik descendant who rule from 980 to 1015, finally took the step of converting to Christianity, not only in his own name but on behalf of all his people
-rejected Islam religion due to their strict rule of forbading alcohol
-organized mass baptisms for his subjects, forcing conversions by military pressure

Front 172

Russian Orthodoxy

Back 172

Russian form of Christianity imported from Byzantine Empire and combined with local religion; king characteristically controlled major appointments

Front 173

Yaroslav

Back 173

the last of the great Kievan princes who issued the legal codification while building many churches and arranging the translation of religious literature from Greek to Slavic

Front 174

boyars

Back 174

Russian aristocrats; possessed less political power than did their counterparts in western Europe

Front 175

Tatars

Back 175

Mongols; captured Russian cities and largely destroyed Kievan state in 1236; left Russian Orthodoxy and aristocracy intact

Front 176

Middle Ages

Back 176

period that featured gradual recovery from the shock of Rome's collapse and growing interaction with other societies, particularly around the Mediterranean

Front 177

Manorialism

Back 177

system of economic and political relations between landlords and their peasant laborers

Front 178

moldboard

Back 178

a better plow that allowed deeper turning of the soil

Front 179

three field system

Back 179

a third of the land was left unplanted each year to regain fertility

Front 180

Clovis

Back 180

a warrior chieftain who converted Christianity about 496 C.E. to gain greater prestige over local rivals, who were still pagan

Front 181

Carolingians

Back 181

a new family that took over the monarchy, which was based in Northern France, Belgium, and western Germany

Front 182

Charles Martel

Back 182

one founder of Carolingian line who was responsible for defeating the Muslims in the Battle of Tours in 732, although his victory had more to do with Arab exhaustion and an overextended invasion force than Carolingian strength

Front 183

Charlemagne

Back 183

a later Carolingian ruler that established a substantial empire in France and Germany around the year 800
-helped to restore some church- based education in western Europe, and the level of intellectual activity began a slow recovery, in part because of these efforts

Front 184

Holy Roman emperors

Back 184

emperors in northern Italy and Germany following split of Charlemagne's empire; claimed title of emperor c. 10th century; failed to develop centralized monarchy in Germany

Front 185

Taenia solium

Back 185

ingest larvae in undercooked pork
ingest eggs -> cysticercosis and
neurocysticercosis
mass lesion in brain ("swiss cheese" appearance)

Front 186

vassals

Back 186

lesser lord (feudalism) who in turn owed their lords military service, some goods or payments, and advice for the land

Front 187

William the Conqueror

Back 187

duke who invaded England in 1066, extended his tight feudal system to his new kingdom; tied the great lords of England to his loyal court by bonds of loyalty, giving them estates in return for their military service
-also used some royal officials, called sheriffs, to help supervise the administration of justice throughout the kingdom

Front 188

Magna Carta

Back 188

Great Charter that confirmed feudal rights again monarchial claims; represented principle of mutual limits and obligations between rulers and feudal aristocracy

Front 189

Parliaments

Back 189

bodies representing privileged groups such as the nobles and the church
-commons made up of elected representatives from wealthy citizens of the towns
-parliament gained the right to rule on any proposed changes in taxation
-similar institutions arose in France, Spain, Scandinavia, and several regions in Germany

Front 190

key three estates

Back 190

church, nobles, and urban leaders

Front 191

Hundred Years' War

Back 191

a long battle between the national monarchies of France & England- over territories the English king controlled in France and over feudal right versus the emerging claims of national states

Front 192

Pope Urban II

Back 192

called for the First Crusade in 1095, appealing to the piety of the West's rulers and common people

Front 193

Gregory VII

Back 193

one of the reform-minded popes who tried to purify the church and free it from interference by feudal lords

Front 194

investiture

Back 194

the practice of state appointment of bishops in Germany

Front 195

Peter Abelard

Back 195

author of "Yes and No" ; university scholar who applied logic to problems of theology; demonstrated logical contradictions within established doctrine
-stressed the importance of mystical union with God; believed that reason was dangerous and proud and that God's truth must be received through faith alone

Front 196

Bernard of Clairvaux

Back 196

a powerful monk who successfully challenged Peter Abelard
-emphasized the role of faith alone

Front 197

Thomas Aquinas

Back 197

a leading figure and Italian-born monk; taught at the University of Paris
-through reason alone, humans could know much of the natural order, of moral law, and of the nature of God
-produced a host of "Summas," or highest works, that used careful logic to eliminate all possible objections to truth as revealed by reason and faith

Front 198

Scholasticism

Back 198

dominant medieval philosophical approach; so- called because of its base in the schools or universities; based on use of logic to resolve the logical problems
-demonstrate an unusual confidence in the logical orderliness of knowledge and in human ability to know

Front 199

Hanseatic League

Back 199

an organization of cities in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia for the purpose of establishing a commericial alliance

Front 200

Guilds

Back 200

-grouped people in the same business or trade in a single city, sometimes with loose links to similar guilds in other cities
-artisan guilds were made up of people in the cities who actually made cloth, bread, jewelry, or furniture; tried to limit their membership so that all members would have work; regulated apprenticeships to guarantee good training but also ensure that no member would employ to many apprentices and so gain undue wealth
-guilds played an important political and social role in the cities, giving their members recognized status and often a voice in the government

Front 201

Black Death

Back 201

plague that struck Europe in 14th century
-1348

Front 202

Indian

Back 202

misnomer (misapplied name) created by Columbus referring to indigenous peoples of New World; implies social and ethnic commonality among Native Americans that did not exist; still used to apply to Native Americans

Front 203

Toltec culture

Back 203

succeeded Teotihuacan culture in central Mexico; strongly militaristic ethic including human sacrifice; influenced large territory after 1000 C.E.; declined after 1200 C.E.

Front 204

Topiltzin

Back 204

religious leader and reformer of the Toltecs; dedicated to god Quetzalcoatl; after losing struggle for power, went into exile in the Yucatan peninsula

Front 205

Quetzalcoatl

Back 205

Toltec deity; Feathered Serpent; adopted by Aztecs as a major god

Front 206

Tenochtitlan

Back 206

Founded c. 1325 on marshy island in Lake Texcoco; became center of Aztec power; joined with Tlacopan and Texcoco in1434 to form a triple alliance that controlled most of central plateau of Mesoamerica

Front 207

Tlaloc

Back 207

major god of Aztecs; associated with fertility and the agricultural cycle; god of rain

Front 208

Nezhualcoyotl

Back 208

Leading Aztec king of the 15th century

Front 209

Huitzilopochtli

Back 209

Aztec tribal patron god; central figure of cult of human sacrifice and warfare; identified with old sun god

Front 210

calpulli

Back 210

Clans in Aztec society, later expanded to include residential groups that distributed land and provided labor and warriors

Front 211

chinampas

Back 211

beds of aquatic weeds, mud, and earth placed in frames made of cane and rotted in lakes to create "floating islands"; system of irrigated agriculture utilized by Aztecs

Front 212

pochteca

Back 212

special merchant class in Aztec society; specialized in long-distance trade in luxury items

Front 213

Twantinsuyu

Back 213

another word for Inca Empire; region from present-day Colombia to Chile and eastward to northern Argentina
-was a highly centralized system that integrated various ethnic groups into an imperial state
-extensive irrigated agriculture supported a state religion and a royal ancestor cult (a particular system of worship)

Front 214

Pachacuti

Back 214

-Inca ruler from 1438-1471
-ruler in Inca world was "inca"*
-under him, the people launched a series of military alliances and campaigns that brought them control of the whole area from Cuzco to the shores of Lake Titicaca

Front 215

split inheritance

Back 215

Inca practice of descent; all titles and political power went to successor; but wealth and land remained in the hands of male descendants for support of cult of dead Inca's mummy

Front 216

Temple of the Sun

Back 216

Inca religious center located at Cuzco; center of state religion*; held mummies of past Incas

Front 217

huacas

Back 217

sacred spirits and powers that resided or appeared in caves, mountains, rocks, rivers, and other natural phenomena; typical of Andean societies

Front 218

curacas

Back 218

local ruler of the Inca empire who were allowed to maintain their positions and were given privileges by the Inca in return fro their loyalty
-cuacas were exempt from tribute obligations and usually received labor or produce from those under their control

Front 219

tambos

Back 219

way stations used by Incas as inns and storehouses; supply centers fro Inca armies one move; relay points fro system of runners used to carry messages

Front 220

mita

Back 220

labor extracted for lands assigned to the state and the religion; all communities were expected to contribute; an essential aspect of Inca imperial control

Front 221

quipu

Back 221

a system of knotted strings that recorded numerical and perhaps other information
-used by the Incas
-it worked like an abacus (a device for making arithmetic calculations, consisting of a frame set with rods on which balls or beads are moved), and with it the Incas took censuses and kept financial records

Front 222

Wendi

Back 222

a member of a prominent north Chinese noble family that had long been active in these contests, struck a marriage alliance between his daughter and the ruler of the northern Zhou empire
-seized the throne of his son- in- law and proclaimed himself emperor
-won support of neighboring nomadic military commanders
-reunited the traditional core areas of Chinese civilization for the first time in three and a half centuries with his victory over Chen

Front 223

Yangdi

Back 223

was a second member of Sui Dynasty; killed his father, Wendi for the throne
-extended his father's conquests and drove back the nomadic intruders who threatened the northern frontiers of the empire
-forcibly conscripted thousands of peasants to build palaces, a new capital city of Loyang, and a series of great canals to link various parts of the empire
-even before work on his many construction projects had been completed, Yangdi led his exhausted and angry subjects into a series of unsuccessful wars to bring Korea back under Chinese rule
-therefore, spread revolts throughout the empire

Front 224

Li Yuan

Back 224

known as the "Duke of Tang"; took over the empire following assassination of Yangdi; first emperor of Tang Dynasty
-was a minister of Yangdi
-laid the basis for the golden age of Tang

Front 225

Changan

Back 225

capital city of Tang dynasty
-larger than any other city

Front 226

Ministry of Rites

Back 226

administered examinations to students from Chinese government schools or those recommended by distinguished scholars

Front 227

Jinshi

Back 227

title granted to students who passed the most difficult Chinese examination on all of Chinese literature
-their names were announced throughout the empire and their families were secured by the prospect of high office that was opened up by their success
-success in exams at all levels won candidates special social status

Front 228

Chan or Zen Buddhism

Back 228

stressed meditation and appreciations of natural and artistic beauty

Front 229

Empress Wu

Back 229

a Tang ruler who tried to elevate Buddhism to the status of a state religion

Front 230

Wuzong

Back 230

an emperor that openly persecuted Buddhism
-thousands of monasteries and Buddhist shrines were destroyed
-Buddhism was weakened and it ceased to be a dominant influence
-Confucianism emerged as the central ideology of Chinese civilization for most of the period from the 9th to the early 20th century

Front 231

Xuanzong

Back 231

emperor who marked the peak of Tang power and the high point of Chinese civilization under the dynasty
-increasingly, his interest in running the vast empire waned
-became infatuated with Yang Huifei, a beautiful young women from the harem of one of the imperial princes

Front 232

Zhao Kuangyin

Back 232

foudner of Song dynasty; took title of Taizu
-could not overcome northern Liao dynasty that remained independent
-were weak on the part of the Song rulers dealing with the Khitan

Front 233

Liao Dynasty

Back 233

founded by nomadic Khitan peoples from Manchuria
-maintained independence from Song dynasty in China

Front 234

Khitans

Back 234

nomadic people that are influenced by Chinese culture
-military was superior to Song dynasty China
-forced humiliating treaties on Song China in 11th century

Front 235

Zhu Xi

Back 235

most prominent of neo-Confucian scholars during the Song dynasty in China
-stressed the importance of applying philosophical principles to everyday life and action

Front 236

Neo- Confucians

Back 236

revivers of ancient Confucian teachings
-Neo- Confucian thinking had a great impact on Chinese intellectual life
-the neo- Confucian emphasis on rank, obligation, deference, and traditional rituals reinforced class, age, and gender distinction
-believed that historical experiences was the best guide for navigating the uncertain terrain of the future

Front 237

Tangut & Xi Xia

Back 237

By the mid- 11th century, Tangut* tribes, originally from Tibet, had established a kingdom named Xi Xia* to the southwest of the Khitan kingdom of Lalo

Front 238

Wang Ashi

Back 238

the chief minister of the Song Shenzong emperor, who tried to ward off the impending collapse of the dynasty by introducing sweeping reforms
-introduced cheap loans and government-assisted irrigation projects to encourage agricultural expansion

Front 239

Jurchens

Back 239

a new nomadic contender in 115 who overthrew the Liao dynasty of the Khitans and established the Jin Kingdom north of the Song Empire
-annexed most of the Yellow River basin to what had become Qin Empire

Front 240

Southern Song dynasty

Back 240

was little more than a rump state carved out of much larger domains ruled by the Tang and northern-based Song

Front 241

Grand Canal

Back 241

was designed to link the original centers of Chinese civilization on the north China plain with the Yangtze river basin more than 500 miles to the south
-Yangdi's Grand Canal was intended to facilitate control over the southern regions by courts, bureaucracies, and armies centered in ancient imperial centers such as Changan and Loyan in the north

Front 242

Junks

Back 242

Chinese ships equipped with watertight bulkheads, rudder,s compasses, etc.
-dominant force in Asian seas east of the Malayan peninsula

Front 243

Flying money

Back 243

Chinese credit instrument that provided credit vouchers to be redeemed at the end of the voyage

Front 244

Hangzhou

Back 244

located between a large lake and a river in the Yangtze delta
-it was crisscrossed by canals and bridges; famed for its wealth, cleanliness, and variety of diversions
-its location near the Yangtze and the coast of East China Sea allowed its traders and artisans to prosper through the sale of goods or the manufacture of products

Front 245

Li Bo

Back 245

most famous poet of the Tang era
-blended images of the mundane world with philosophical musings

Front 246

Taika reforms

Back 246

attempt to remake Japanese monarch into an absolute Chinese- style emperor; included attempts to create professional bureaucracy and peasant conscript army

Front 247

Fujiwara

Back 247

Japanese aristocratic family in mid-9th century; exercised exceptional influence over imperial affairs; aided in decline of imperial power

Front 248

bushi

Back 248

regional warrior leaders in Japan; ruled small kingdoms from fortresses; administered the law, supervised public works projects, and collected revenues, built up private armies

Front 249

samurai

Back 249

mounted troops of Japanese warrior leaders (bushi); loyal to local lords, not the emperor

Front 250

seppuku

Back 250

ritual suicide or disembowelment in Japan; commonly known in West as hara- kiri; demonstrated courage and a means to restore family honor

Front 251

Taira

Back 251

powerful Japanese family in 11th and 12th centuries; competed with Minamoto family; defeated after Gempei Wars

Front 252

Minamoto

Back 252

defeated the rival Taira family in Gempei Wars and established military government (bakufu) in 12th- century Japan

Front 253

Gempei Wars

Back 253

waged for five years from 1180, on Honshu between Taira and Minamoto families; resulted in destruction of Taira

Front 254

bakufu

Back 254

military government established by the Minamoto following the Gempei Wars; centered at Kamakura; retained emperor, but real power resided in military government and samurai

Front 255

shoguns

Back 255

military leaders of the bakufu (military government in 12-th century Japan)

Front 256

Hojo

Back 256

warrior family closely allied with Minamoto; dominated Kamakura regime and manipulated Minamoto rulers; claimed to rule in name of Japanese emperor at Kyoto

Front 257

Ashikaga Takuaji

Back 257

member of the Minamoto family; overthrew the Kamakura regime and established the Ashikaga Shogunate from 1336- 1573; drove emperor from Kyoto to Yoshino

Front 258

Ashikaga Shogunate

Back 258

replaced the Kamakura regime in Japan; ruled from 1336 to 1573; destroyed rival Yoshino center of imperial authority

Front 259

daimyos

Back 259

warlord rulers of 300 small states following Onin War and disruption of Ashikaga Shogunate; holdings consolidated into unified and bounded mini-states

Front 260

Chosun

Back 260

earliest Korean kingdom; conquered by Han emperor in 109 B.C.E.

Front 261

Koguryo

Back 261

tribal people of northern Korea; established an independent kingdom in the northern half of the peninsula; adopted cultural Sinification

Front 262

Silla

Back 262

independent Korean kingdom in southeastern part of peninsula; defeated Koguryo along with their Chinese Tang allies; submitted as a vassal of the Tang emperor and agreed to tribute payment; ruled united Korea by 668

Front 263

Paekche

Back 263

independent Korean kingdom in southeastern part of peninsula; defeated by rival Silla kingdom and its Chinese Tang allies in 7th century

Front 264

Sinification

Back 264

extensive adaptation of Chinese culture in other regions; typical of Korea and Japan, less typical of Vietnam

Front 265

Yi dynasty

Back 265

Korean dynasty that succeeded Koryo dynasty following period of Mongol invasions; established in 1392; ruled Korea to 1910; restored aristocratic dominance and Chinese influence

Front 266

Khmers

Back 266

Indianized rivals of the Vietnamese; moved into Mekong River delta region at time of Vietnamese drive to the south

Front 267

Trung Sisters

Back 267

leaders of one of the frequent peasant rebellions in Vietnam against Chinese rule; revolt broke out in 39 C.E.; demonstrates importance of Vietnamese women in indigenous society

Front 268

tumens

Back 268

basic fighting units of the Mongol forces; consisted of 10000 cavalry men; each unit was further divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10

Front 269

Muhammad Shah II

Back 269

Turkic ruler of Muslim Khwarazm kingdom; attempted to resist Mongol conquest; conquered in 1220

Front 270

kuriltai

Back 270

meeting of all Mongol chieftains at which the supreme ruler of all tribes was selected

Front 271

khagan

Back 271

title of the supreme ruler of the Mongol tribes

Front 272

Karakorum

Back 272

capital of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan

Front 273

Golden Horde

Back 273

one of the four subdivisions of the Mongol Empire after Genghis Khan's death, originally ruled by his grandson Batu; territory covered much of what is today south central Russia

Front 274

Battle of Kulikova

Back 274

Russian army victor over the forces of then Golden Horde; helped break Mongol hold over Russia

Front 275

Prester John

Back 275

Name given to a mythical Christian monarch whose kingdom had supposedly been cut off from Europe by the Muslim conquests; Genghis Khan was originally believed to be this mythical ruler

Front 276

Chabi

Back 276

influential wife of Kublai Khan; promoted interests of Buddhists in China; indicative of refusal of Mongol women to adopt restrictive social conventions of Chinese

Front 277

White Lotus Society

Back 277

secret religious society dedicated to overthrow of Yuan dynasty in China; typical of peasant resistance to Mongol rule

Front 278

Ju Yuanzhang

Back 278

Chinese peasant who led successful revolt against Yuan in 14th century; founded Ming dynasty

Front 279

Ming dynasty

Back 279

succeeded Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1368; lasted until 1644; initially mounted huge trade expeditions to southern Asia and elsewhere, but later concentrated efforts on internal development within China

Front 280

Timur-i Lang

Back 280

also known as Tamerlane; leader of Turkic nomads; beginning in 1360s from base at Samarkand, launched series of attacks in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia; empire disintegrated after his death in 1405

Front 281

Zheng He

Back 281

Chinese Muslim admiral who commanded series of Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea trade expeditions under third Ming emperor, Yunglo, between 1405 and 1433; only Chinese attempt to create worldwide trade empire

Front 282

Renaissance

Back 282

rebirth
-a cultural and political movement grounded in urban vitality and expanding commerce, began in Italy during the fourteenth century

Front 283

Vasco da Gama

Back 283

Portuguese captain who sailed for India in 1497; established early Portuguese dominance in Indian Ocean

Front 284

Francesco Petrarch

Back 284

one of the major literary figures of the Western Renaissance; an Italian author and humanist

Front 285

Castile and Aragon

Back 285

regional kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula; pressed reconquest of peninsula from Muslims; developed a vigorous military and religious agenda

Front 286

Vivaldi Brothers

Back 286

two Genoese brothers who attempted to find a Western route to the "Indies"; disappeared in 1291; precursors of thrust into southern Atlantic

Front 287

Henry the Navigator

Back 287

Portuguese prince responsible for direction of series of expeditions along the African coast in the 15th century; marked beginning of western European expansion

Front 288

Cape of Good Hope

Back 288

southern tip of Africa; first circumnavigated in 1488 by Portuguese in search of direct route to India

Front 289

Christopher Columbus

Back 289

Genoese captain in service of king and queen of Castile and Aragon; successfully sailed to New World and returned in 1492; initiated European discoveries in Americas

Front 290

Ferdinand Magellan

Back 290

Spanish captain who in 1519 initiated first circumnavigation around the globe; died during the voyage; allowed Spain to claim Philippines

Front 291

Dutch East India Company

Back 291

Joint stock company that obtained government monopoly over trade in Asia; acted as virtually independent government in regions it claimed

Front 292

British East India Company

Back 292

Joint stock company that obtained government monopoly over trade in India; acted as virtually independent government in regions it claimed

Front 293

Lepanto

Back 293

naval battle between the Spanish and the Ottoman Empire resulting in a Spanish victory in 1571; demonstrated European naval superiority over Muslims

Front 294

core nations

Back 294

nations, usually European, that enjoyed profit from world economy; controlled international baking and commercial services such as shipping; exported manufactured goods for raw materials

Front 295

mercantilism

Back 295

economic theory that stressed governments' promotion of limitation of imports from other nations and internal economies in order to improve tax revenues; popular during 17th and 18th centuries in Europe

Front 296

mestizos

Back 296

people of mixed European and Indian ancestry in Mesoamerica and South America; particularly prevalent in areas colonized by Spain; often part of forced labor system

Front 297

Vasco de Balboa

Back 297

first Spanish captain to begin settlement on the mainland of Mesoamerica in 1509; initial settlement eventually led to conquest of Aztec and Inca empires by other captains

Front 298

Francisco Pizarro

Back 298

led conquest of Inca Empire of Peru beginning in 1535; by 1540, most of Inca possessions fell to the Spanish

Front 299

New France

Back 299

French colonies in North America; extended from St. Lawrence River along Great Lakes and down Mississippi River valley system

Front 300

Seven Years' War

Back 300

fought both in continental Europe and also in overseas colonies between 1756 and 1763; resulted in Prussian seizures of land from Austria, English seizures of colonies in India and North America

Front 301

Treaty of Paris

Back 301

arranged in 1753 following Seven Years' War; granted New France to England in exchange for return of French sugar island in Carribean

Front 302

Cape Colonoy

Back 302

Dutch colony established at Cape of Good Hope in 1652 initially to provide a coastal station for the Dutch seaborne empire; by 1770 settlements had expanded sufficiently to come into conflict with Bantus

Front 303

Boers

Back 303

Dutch settlers in Cape Colony, in southern Africa

Front 304

Calcutta

Back 304

headquarters of British East India Company in Bengal in Indian subcontinent; located on Ganges; captured in 1756 during early part of Seven Years' War; later became administrative center for all of Bengal

Front 305

Niccolo Machiavelli

Back 305

Author of "The Prince" (16th century); emphasized realistic discussions of how to seize and maintain power; one of most influential authors of Italian Renaissance

Front 306

humanism

Back 306

focus on humankind as center of intellectual and artistic endeavor; method of study that emphasized the superiority of classical forms over medieval styles, in particular the study of ancient languages

Front 307

Northern Renaissance

Back 307

cultural and intellectual movement of northern Europe; began later in Italian Renaissance c. 1450; centered in France, Low Countries, England, and Germany; featured greater emphasis on religion than Italian Renaissance

Front 308

Francis I

Back 308

King of France in the 16th century; regarded as Renaissance monarch; patron of arts; imposed new controls on Catholic church; ally of Ottoman sultan against Holy Roman emperor

Front 309

European style family

Back 309

originated in 15th century among peasants and artisans of western Europe, featuring late marriage age, emphasis on the nuclear family, and a large minority who never married

Front 310

Protestantism

Back 310

general wave of religious dissent against Catholic church; generally held to have begun with Martin Luther's attack on Catholic beliefs in 1517; included many varieties of religious belief

Front 311

Anglican church

Back 311

form of Protestantism set up in England after 1534; established by Henry VIII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife; became increasingly Protestant following Henry's death

Front 312

Jean Calvin

Back 312

French Protestant (16th century) who stressed doctrine of predestination; established center of his group at Swiss canton of Geneva; encouraged ideas of wider access to government, wider public education; Calvinism spread from Switzerland to northern Europe and North America

Front 313

Catholic Reformation

Back 313

restatement of traditional Catholic beliefs in response to Protestant Reformation (16th century); established councils that revived Catholic doctrine and refuted Protestant beliefs

Front 314

Jesuits

Back 314

a new religious order founded during the Catholic Reformation; active in politics, education, and missionary work; sponsored missions to South America, Northern American, and Asia

Front 315

edict of Nantes

Back 315

grant of tolerance to Protestants in France in 1598; granted only after lengthy civil war between Catholic and Protestant factions

Front 316

Thirty Years' War

Back 316

War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, and France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia

Front 317

Treaty of Westphalia

Back 317

ended Thirty Years' War in 1648; granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion-- either Protestant or Catholic

Front 318

English Civil War

Back 318

conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1600 following execution of previous king

Front 319

proletariat

Back 319

class of working people without access to producing property; typically manufacturing workers, paid laborers in agricultural economy, or urban poor; in Europe, product of economic changes of 16th and 17th centuries

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Copernicus

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Polish monk and astronomer (16th century); disproved Hellenistic belief that the earth was at the center of the universe

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Galileo

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published Copernicus' findings (17th century); added own discoveries concerning laws of gravity and planetary motion; condemned by the Catholic church for his work

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John Harvey

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English physician (17th century) who demonstrated circular movement of blood in animals, function of heart as pump

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Rene Descartes

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established importances of skeptical review of all received wisdom (17th century); argued that human reason could then develop laws that would explain the fundamental workings of nature

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Isaac Newton

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English scientist during the 17th century; author of "Principia"; drew the various astronomical and physical observations and wider theories together in a neat framework of natural laws; established principles of motion; defined forces of gravity

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Deism

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concept of God current during the Scientific Revolution; role of divinity was to set natural laws in motion, not to regulate once process was begun

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John Locke

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English philosopher during 17th century; argued that people could learn everything through senses and reason; argued that power of government came from the people, not divine right of kings; offered possibility of revolution to overthrow tyrants

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absolute monarchy

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concept of voernment developed during the rise of nation-states in western Europe durign the 17th century; featured monarchs who passed laws without parliaments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, established state churches, imposed state economic policies

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Louis XIV

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French monarch of the late 17th century who personified absolute monarchy

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Glorious Revolution

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English overthrow of James II in 1688; resulted in affirmation of parliament as having basic sovereignty over the king

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parliamentary monarchy

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originated in England and Holland, 17th century, with kings partially checked by significant legislative powers in parliaments

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Frederick the Great

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Prussian king of the 18th century; attempted to introduce Enlightenment reforms into Germany; built on military and bureaucratic foundations of his predecessors; introduced freedom of religion; increased state control of economy

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Adam Smith

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established liberal economics ('Wealth of Nations", 1776); argued that government should avoid regulation of economy in favor of the operation of market forces

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Enlightenment

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intellectual movement centered in France during the 18th century; featured scientific advance, application of scientific methods to study of human society; belief that rational laws could describe social behavior

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Mary Wollstonecraft

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Enlightenment feminist thinker in England; argued that new political rights should extend to women

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Ivan III

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Also know as Ivan the Great; prince of Duchy of Moscow; claimed descent from Rurik; responsible for freeing Russia from Mongols after 1462; took title of tsar or Caesar -- equivalent of emperor

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third Rome

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Russian claim to be successor state to Roman and Byzantine empires; based in part on continuity of Orthodox church in Russia following fall of Constantinople in 1453

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boyars

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Russian aristocrats; possessed less political power than did their counterparts in western Europe

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Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible)

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confirmed power of tsarist autocracy by attacking authority of boyars (aristocrats); continued policy of Russian expansion; established contacts with western European commerce and culture

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cossacks

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peasants recruited to migrate to newly seized lands in Russia, particularly in south; combined agriculture with military conquests; spurred additional frontier conquests and settlements

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Time of Troubles

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followed death of Ivan IV without heir early in 17th century; boyars attempted to use vacuum of power to reestablish their authority; ended with selection of Michael Romanov as tsar in 1613

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Romanov dynasty

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Dynasty elected in 1612 at end of Time of Troubles; ruled Russia until 1917

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Alexis Romanov

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second Romanov tsar; abolished assemblies of nobles; gained new powers over Russian Orthodoxy church

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Old Believers

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Russians who refused to accept the ecclesiastical reforms of Alexis Romanov (17th century); many exiled to Siberia or southern Russia, where they became part of Russian colonization

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Peter I

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also known as Peter the Great; spn of Alexis Romanov; ruled from 1689 to 1725; continued growth of absolutism and conquest; included more definite interest in changing selected aspects of economy and culture through imitation of western European models

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Catherine the Great

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German- born Russian tsarina in the 18th century; ruled after assassination of her husband; gave appearance of enlightened rule; accepted Western cultural influence; maintained nobility as service aristocracy by granting them new power over peasantry

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Pugachev rebellion

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during 1770s in reign of Catherine the Great led by cossack Emelian Pugachev, who claimed to be legitimate tsar, eventually crushed; typical of peasant unrest during the 18th century and thereafter

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partition of Poland

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division of Polish territory among Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772, 1793, and 1795; eliminated Poland as independent state; part of expansion of Russian influence in eastern Europe

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Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

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monarchs of largest Christian kingdoms in Iberia; Ferdinand's marriage to Isabella created united Spain; responsible for reconquest of Granada, initiation of exploration of New World

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encomiendas

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grants of Indian laborers made to Spanish conquerors and settlers in Mesoamerica and South America; basis for earliest forms of coerced labor in Spanish colonies

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Hispaniola

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first island in Caribbean settled by Spaniards; settlement founded by Columbus on second voyage to New World; Spanish base of operations for further discoveries in New World

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encomendero

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the holder of a grant of Indians who were required to pay a tribute or provide labor. The encomendero was responsible for their integration into the church

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Bartolome de Las Casas

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Dominican friar who supported peaceful conversion of the Native American population of the Spanish colonies; opposed forced labor and advocated Indian rights

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Moctezuma II

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Last independent Aztec emperor; killed during Hernan Cortes' conquest of Tenochtitlan

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Mexico City

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capital of New Spain; built on ruins of Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan

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Hernan Cortes

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led expedition of 600 to coast of Mexico in 1519; conquistador responsible for defeat of Aztec Empire; captured Tenochtitilan

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Francisco Vazquez de Coronado

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leader of Spanish expedition in northern frontier region of New Spain;entered what is now United States in search for mythical cities of gold

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Pedro de Valdivia

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Spanish conquistador; conquered Araucanian Indians of Chile and established city of Santiago in 1541

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Huancavelica

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Location of greatest deposit of mercury in South America; aided in American silver production; linked with Potosi

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consulado

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merchant guild of Seville; enjoyed virtual monopoly rights over goods shipped to America and handled much of the silver received in return

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galleons

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large, heavily armed ships used to carry silver from New World colonies to Spain; basis for convoy system utilized by Spain for transportation of bullion

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Treaty of Tordesillas

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signed in 1494 between Castile and POrtugal; clarified spheres of influence and rights of possession in New World; reserved Brazil and all newly discovered lands east of Brazil to Portugal; granted all lands west of Brazil to Spain

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letrados

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university- trained lawyers from Spain in the New World; juridical core of Spanish colonial bureaucracy; exercised both legislative and administrative functions

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Recopilacion

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body of laws collected in 1681 for Spanish possessions in New World; basis of law in the INdies

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Council of the Indies

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body within the Castilian government that issued all laws and advised king on all matters dealing with the Spanish colonies of the New World

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viceroyalties

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two major divisions of Spanish colonies in New World; one based in Lima; the other in Mexico City; direct representatives of the king

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audiencias

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royal court of appeals established in Spanish colonies of New World; there were 10 in each viceroyalty; part of colonial administrative system staffed by professional magistrates

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Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz

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author, poet, and musician of New Spain; eventually gave up secular concerns to concentrate on spiritual matters

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Pedro Alvares Cabral

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Portuguese leader of an expedition to India; blown off course in 1500 and landed in Brazil

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capitaincies

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strips of land along Brazilian coast granted to minor Portuguese nobles for development; enjoyed limited success in developing the colony

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Paulistas

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backwoodsmen from Sao Paulo in Brazil; penetrated Brazilian interior in search of precious metals during 17th century

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Minas Gerais

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region of Brazil located in mountainous interior where gold strikes were discovered in 1695; became location for gold rush

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Rio de Janeiro

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Brazil port; close to mines of Minas Gerais; importance grew with gold strikes; became colonial capital in 1763

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sociedad de castas

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American social system based on racial origins; Europeans or whites at top, black slaves or Native Americans at bottom, mised races in middle

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amigos del pais

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clubs and associations dedicated to improvements and reform in Spanish colonies; flourished during the 18th century; called fro material improvements rather than political reform

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War of the Spanish Succession

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resulted from Bourbon family's succession to Spanish throne in 1701; ended by Treaty of Utrecht in 1713; resulted in recognition of Bourbons, loss of some lands, grants of commercial rights of English and French

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Charles III

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Spanish enlightened monarch; ruled from 1759 to 1788; instituted fiscal, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empire

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Jose de Galvez

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Spanish minister of the West Indies and chief architect of colonial reform; moved to eliminate Creoles from upper bureaucracy of the colonies; created intendants for local government

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Marquis of Pombal

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Prime minister of Portugal from 1755 to 1776; acted to strengthen royal authority in Brazil; expelled Jesuits; enacted fiscal reforms and established monopoly companies to stimulate the colonial economy

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Comunero Revolt

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one of popular revolts against Spanish colonial rule in New Granada (Colombia) in 1781; suppressed as a result of divisions among rebels

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Tupac Amaru

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Mestizo leader of Indian revolt in Peru; supported by many among lower social classes; revolt eventually failed because of Creole fears of real social revolution

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factories

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Portuguese trading fortresses and compounds with resident merchants; utilized throughout Portuguese trading empire to assure secure landing places and commerce

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El Mina

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most important of early Portuguese trading factories in forest zone of Africa

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Nzinga Mvemba

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King of Kongo south of Zaire River from 1507 to 1543; converted to Christianity and took title of Alfonso I; under Portuguese influence attempted to Christianize all of kingdom

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Luanda

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Portuguese factory established in 1520s south of Kongo; became basis for Portuguese colony of Angola

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Royal African Company

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Chartered in 1660s to establish a monopoly over the slave trade among British merchants; supplied African slaves to colonies in Barbados, Jamaica, and Virginia

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Indies piece

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term utilized within the complex exchange system established by the Spanish for Africa trade; referred to the value of an adult male slave

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triangular trade

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commerce linking Africa, the New World colonies, and Europe; slaves carried to America for sugar and tobacco transported to Europe

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Asante Empire

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established in Gold Coast among Akan people settled around Kumasi; dominated by Oyoko clan; many clans linked under Osei Tutu after 1650

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Osei Tutu

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member of Oyoko clan of Akan peoples in Gold Coast region of Africa; responsible for creating unified Asante Empire; utilized Western firearms

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asantehene

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title taken by ruler of Asante Empire; supreme civil and religious leader; authority symbolized by golden stool

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Dahomey

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Kingdom developed among Fon or Aja peoples in 17th century; center at Abomey 70 miles from coast; under King Agaja expanded to control coastline and port of Whydah by 1727; accepted Western firearms and goods in return for African slaves

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Fulani

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people of western Sudan; adopted purifying into Sufi variant of Islam; under Usuman Dan Fodio in 1804, lauched revolt against Hausa kingdoms; established state centered on Sokoto

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Luo

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Nilotic people who migrated from Upper Nile valley; established dynasty among existing Bantu population in lake region of central eastern Africa; center at Bunyoro

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great trek

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movement of Boer settlers in Cape Colony of southern Africa to escape influence of British colonial government in 1834; led to settlement of regions of north of Orange River and Natal

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mfecane

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wars of 19th century in southern Africa; created by Zulu expansion under Shaka; revolutionized political organization of southern Africa

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William Wilberforce

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British statesman and reformer; leader of abolitionist movement in English parliament that led to end of English slave trade in 1807

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Lesotho

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southern African state that survived mfecane; not based on Zulu model; less emphasis on military organization, less authoritarian government

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Middle passage

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slave voyage from Africa to the Americas (16th-18th centuries); generally a traumatic experience for black slave, although it failed to strip Africans of their culture

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saltwater slaves

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slaves transported from Africa; almost invariably black

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Creole slaves

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American-born descendants of saltwater slaves; result of sexual exploitation of slave women or process of miscegenation

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obeah

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African religious ideas and practices in the English and French Caribbean islands

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candomble

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African religious ideas and practices in Brazil, particularly among the Yoruba people

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vodun

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African religious ideas and practices among descendants of African slaves in Haiti

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Suriname

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formerly a Dutch plantation colony on the coast of South America; location of runaway slave kingdom in 18th century; able to retain independence despite attempts to crush guerrilla resistance

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Palmares

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kingdom of runaway slaves with a population of 8000 to 10000 people; located in Brazil during the 17th century; leadership was Angolan

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Ottoman

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Turkic people who advanced from strongholds in Asia Minor during 1350s; conquered large part of Balkans; unified under Mehmed II; captured Constantinople in 1453; established empire from Balkans that included most of Arab world

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Safavid dynasty

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originally a Turkic nomadic group; family originated in Sufi mystic group; espoused Shi'ism; conquered territory and established kingdom in region equivalent to modern Iran; lasted until 1722

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Mughal Empire

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established by Babur in India in 1526; the name is taken from the supposed Mongol descent of Babur, but there is little indication of any Mongol influence in the dynasty; became weak after rule of Aurangzeb in first decades of 18th century

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Mehmed II

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Ottoman sultan called the "Conqueror"; responsible for conquest of Constantinople in 1453; destroyed what remained of Byzantine Empire

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Janissaries

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Ottoman infantry divisions that dominated Ottoman armies; forcibly conscripted as boys in conquered areas of Balkans, legally slaves; translated military service into political influence, particularly after 15th century

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Sail al- Din

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Early 14-th century Sufi mystic; began campaign to purify Islam; first member of Safavid dynasty

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Red Heads

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Name given to Safavid followers because of their distinctive red headgear

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Isma'il

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Sufi commander who conquered city of Tabriz in 1501; first Safavid to be proclaimed shah or emperor

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Chaldiran

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site of battle between Safavids and Ottomans in 1514; Safavids severely defeated by Ottomans; checked western advance of Safavid Empire

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Abbas the Great

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Safavid ruler from 1587 to 1629; extended Safavid domain to greatest extent; created slave regiments based on captured Russians, who monopolized firearms within Safavid armies; incorporated Western military technology

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imams

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according to Shi'ism, rulers who could trace descent from Ali

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Mullahs

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local mosque officials and prayer leaders within the Safavid Empire; agents of Safavid religious campaign to convert all of population to Shi'ism

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Isfahan

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Safavid capital under Abbas the Greatl planned city laid out according to shah's plan; example of Safavid architecture

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Nadir Khan Afshar

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soldier - adventurer following fall of Safavid dynasty in 1722; proclaimed himself shah in 1736; established short-lived dynasty in reduced kingdom

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Babur

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founder of Mughal dynasty in India; descended form Turkic warriors; first led invasion of India in 1526; died in 1530

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Humayan

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son and successor of Babur; expelled from India in 1540, but restored Mughal rule by 1556; died shortly thereafter

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Din- i - Ilahi

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religion initiated by Akbar in Mughal India; blended elements of the many faiths of the subcontinent; key to efforts to reconcile Hindus and Muslims in India, but failed

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Aurangzeb

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son and successor of Shah Jahan in Mughal India; determined to extend Mughal control over whole of subcontinent; wished to purify Islam of Hindu influences; incessant warfare exhausted empire despite military successes; died in 1707

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Nur Jahan

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wife of Jahangir; amassed power in court and created faction of male relatives who dominated Mughal empire during later years of Jahangir's reign

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Mumtaz Mahal

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wife of Shah Jahan; took an active political role in Mughal court; entombed in Taj Mahal

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Marattas

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Western India people who rebelled against Mughal control early in 18th century

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Siks

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sect in northwest India; early leaders tried to bridge differences between Hindu and Muslim, but Mughal persecution led to anti- Muslim feeling