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348 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Activist court
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Court that makes decisions that forge new ground such as Roe v. Wade or Brown v. Board of Education and establish precedent that often result in some form of legislative action
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Advise and consent
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Power of the Senate regarding presidential appointments.
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Affirmative action
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Programs for minorities supported by government as a means of providing equality under law.
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Agenda setting
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Policy goals typically set by political parties.
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Americans with Disabilities Act (1991)
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Act that required employers, schools, and public buildings to reasonably accommodate the physical needs of handicapped individuals by providing such things as ramps and elevators with appropriate facilities.
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Amicus curiae
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"Friend of the court"; briefs that may be sent to the court to support the position of one side or the other.
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Anti-federalists
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Led by Thomas Jefferson, one of the first political parties urging the rejection of the Constitution. Its members were farmers and represented the interest of the common people.
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Appellate jurisdiction
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Courts that have the right to review cases from lower courts on appeal. The highest federal court, the Supreme Court, is the final court of appeal.
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Appropriation bill
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Congressional legislation that has spending as a basic characteristic. There are 13 appropriation bills that make up the federal budget.
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Apportionment
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The determination of legislative district boundaries as a result of population changes measured every 10 years by the census.
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Arms control
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Agreements reached by countries with the aim of reducing the proliferation of military weapons such as the Antiballistic Missile Treaty (1972), the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (1972), the second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (1979), the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987), the first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (1991), and the second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (1993).
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Arraignment
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Court hearing where a person accused of a crime is formally charged.
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Articles of Confederation
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The first adopted written constitution of the newly independent United States. Because of its weakness, the period of time (1781-1789) became known as the critical period.
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Baker v. Carr
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Case that established the principle of one man, one vote. This decision created guidelines for drawing up congressional districts and guaranteed a more equitable system of representation to the citizens of each state.
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Balanced budget
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Public policy that advocates that the federal budget spends as much money as it receives. Attempt made to pass a constitutional amendment mandating this policy failed.
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Bicameral
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A two-house legislature.
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Bill of attainder
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The constitutional prohibition of the legislature determining a judicial outcome without a trial.
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Bill of Rights
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Adopted in 1791 by the states two years after the ratification of the Constitution, it established the basis of civil liberties for Americans.
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Bipartisan
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Refers to two political parties working together to reach a common policy goal.
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Block grants
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A form of fiscal federalism where federal aid is given to the states with few strings attached.
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Brandeis Brief
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A friend of the court opinion offered by Louis Brandeis, in the Supreme Court case Muller v. Oregon (1908), which spoke about inherent differences between men and women in the workplace.
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Bully pulpit
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The ability to use the office of the presidency to promote a particular program and/or to influence Congress to accept legislative proposals.
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Bureaucracies
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Large administrative agencies reflecting a hierarchical authority, job specialization, and rules and regulations that drive them.
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Burger Court
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Warren Burger was appointed by Richard Nixon in 1969 as the 15th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The Court he presided over was more conservative than the Warren Court, handing over more power to the states through the Court's decisions.
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Cabinet
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Part of the "unwritten Constitution," it was first established by George Washington and includes federal departments such as state, defense, etc.
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Campaign finance reform
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Legislation aimed at placing limits on political candidates accepting money and gifts from individuals and special interest groups.
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Categorical grants
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Include project and formula grants and aim at assisting the states in areas such as health, income security, and education.
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Caucus
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Party regulars meeting in small groups asking questions, discussing qualifications regarding the candidate, and voting on whether to endorse a particular candidate. The Iowa caucus has taken on almost as much importance as the New Hampshire primary because of its timing.
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Census
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Official count of the population of a district, state, or nation, which includes recording of statistics such as age, sex, occupation, and property ownership.
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Checks and balances
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A key aspect of the Constitution of the United States protecting the balance of power among the three branches of government. The concept was first promoted by James Madison in the Federalist Papers.
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Chief executive
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Used to describe the President. Powers found in Article II of the Constitution.
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Civil liberties
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Those rights of the people that are protected by the Bill of Rights.
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Clear Air Act (1970)
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Law that established national standards for states, strict auto emissions guidelines, and regulations, which set air pollution standards for private industry.
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Clean Water Act
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Passed in 1987, this law established safe drinking standards and creates penalties for water polluters.
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Clear and Present Danger Doctrine
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Established in Schenck v. United States (1919), it gives the government the right to censor free speech if, during national emergencies such as war, it can be proven that the result of the speech will significantly hurt national security.
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Cloture
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The process in which it takes 60 senators to cut off a filibuster and that is aimed at protecting minority interests.
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Cold war
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An era of American foreign policy lasting from the end of World War II (1945) to the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) where American policy was defined as containment of communism.
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Collective security
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Agreement to form through treaties mutual defense arrangements, such as NATO, which guarantee that if one nation is attacked, other nations will come to its defense.
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Commander-in-chief
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Delegated power of the president.
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Commerce clause
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Article I Section 8 Clause 3 of the Constitution giving Congress the authority to regulate interstate commerce and commerce with foreign nations.
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Common law
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Based on the legal concept of stare decisis, or judicial precedent.
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Competitive federalism
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Begun under Richard Nixon and known as the new federalism, this approach stressed the downsizing of the federal government and more reliance on revenue sharing and grants.
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Concurrent power
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Power shared by the state and federal government, such as the power to tax.
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Concurring opinion
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Additional opinion in a Court decision written by a member of the majority.
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Confederation
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Approach to government that decentralizes power, giving more power to the individual states than to the central government.
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Conference committee
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A committee consisting of senators and representatives that meets to resolve differences in legislation.
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Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
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Set up by the Congress, this office evaluates the cost of legislative proposals.
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Congressional oversight
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Power used by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy.
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Connecticut Compromise
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Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it was adopted by the delegates and created a bicameral legislature, where one house is represented by population, and the other house is represented by the states.
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Consent of the governed
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A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence, that puts the authority of the government in the peoples' hands.
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Conservative
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A person who believes in less government, lower taxes, a strong national defense, and more responsibility.
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Constituent
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Person living in the district of an elected official.
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Constitution
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Provides the basic framework of government. It is the supreme law of the land.
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Consumer Price Index (CPI)
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A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.
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Continuing resolution
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Emergency spending legislation that prevents the shutdown of any department simply because its budget has not been enacted.
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Convention bump
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An increase reflected in presidential preference polls immediately following a party's nominating convention.
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Cooperative federalism
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Developed during the New Deal, it is characterized by the federal government's becoming more intrusive in what were traditionally state powers.
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Council of Economic Advisors
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White House staff agency created to give the president advice regarding economic and fiscal policy.
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Creative federalism
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Developed during President Lyndon Johnson's administration, it was characterized by the Great Society programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs.
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Critical election
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An election that results in a party realignment caused by the movement of voters from one party to another. The election of 1980 was a critical election because traditional Democrats voted for Ronald Reagan. They became known as Reagan Democrats.
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Cruel and unusual punishment
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Doctrine found in the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution that prohibits the federal government from imposing level excessive penalties for crimes committed.
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Culture of poverty
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The establishment of an income level by government that references the point at which an individual is considered to be living in poverty.
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Dark horse
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Candidate running for office who is not well known, considered to be the underdog in the race.
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De facto segregation
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Segregation of schools and other public facilities through circumstance with no law supporting it.
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De jure segregation
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Segregation by law, made illegal in Brown v. Board of Education
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Delegated powers
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Defined in the Constitution as those powers that are listed in the Constitution as belonging to the federal government.
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Declaration of Independence
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Blueprint for the American Revolution containing three parts. The first part - an introduction including ideas such as natural rights as related to life, liberty, and property, the consent of the governed, and the concept of limited government. The second part - a list of grievances against the King of England and the third part - a declaration of independence.
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Deficit spending
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The government's meeting budgetary expenses by borrowing more money than it can pay back.
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Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions (1848)
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Drafted at the Seneca Falls Convention and taken from The History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. 1, by E.C. Stanton, S. B. Anthony, and M. J. Gage, the document that outlines the case for the right to vote for women, as well as other rights denied to women at that time.
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Democratic Party
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Political party that evolved from the original Democratic-Republican Party. It is one of the two major political parties.
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Democratic-Republicans
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Led by Thomas Jefferson, they were characterized as the party of the "common man." They believed in a more limited role of the central government.
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Demographics
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Characteristics of a population, including age, sex, and race. Demographics are often used to determine changes in the make-up of a population.
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Détente
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A foreign policy started by Richard Nixon and supported by Ronald Reagan that resulted in an improvement of relations with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
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Devolution
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Political theory of returning power to the states.
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Direct democracy
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Type of government characterized by citizens attending a town meeting and voting on issues raised, with the majority prevailing.
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Direct primary
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Votes, including cross-over voters from other political parties, can express a preference for candidates.
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Direct tax
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Money paid directly to the government in the form of income taxes.
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Discount rates
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Interest levels established by the Federal Reserve that affect the ability of the consumer to borrow money. Raising and lowering rates is used as a tool to combat inflation.
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Discretionary Spending
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Those appropriation items in the budget that are not mandatory. In the federal budget, discretionary spending consists of measures in the 13 appropriation bills that must be passed by Congress by October 1 in such categories as transportation, agriculture, and education.
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Dissenting opinion
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Judicial written opinion that is contrary to the ruling of the full court.
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Distributive policy
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Results in the government giving benefits directly to people, groups, farmers, and businesses. Typical policies include subsidies, research and development funds for corporations, and direct government aid for highway construction and education.
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Divided government
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Characterized by political gridlock as the result of different political parties having control of different branches.
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Division of labor
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Skilled workers each have a specialized function, resulting in increased productivity.
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Double jeopardy
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Legal concept wherein once a verdict is handed down, you cannot be tried again for the same crime.
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Dual federalism
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The earliest type of relationship established between the federal government and the states where the federal government's powers were defined as delegated and the state government's powers were reserved.
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Dual sovereignty
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A variation of double jeopardy. A person accused of a crime can be tried once in a state court and once in a federal court.
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Dual primary
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Where presidential candidates are selected and a separate slate of delegates is also voted on. New Hampshire uses this type of primary.
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Earmarks
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Pet projects added to appropriation bills by congressman, called "wasteful spending" and "pork barrel legislation" by critics.
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Elastic clause
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Found in Article I Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to make "all laws necessary and proper" to carry out the other defined powers of Congress.
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Electoral College
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A presidential candidate, once winning the nomination for a party, is chosen to be the president here.
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Elite and class theory
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A group theory that revolves around an economic stratum of society controlling the policy agenda.
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Entitlements
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Those benefits guaranteed by law paid to individuals by the federal government, such as Social Security.
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Enumerated powers
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Delegated powers of Congress, including the power to collect taxes, pay debts, provide for the common defense and general welfare, regulate commerce among the states, coin money, and declare war.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
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Regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency.
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Equal Protection Under the Law
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Phrase found in the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution that furthers the legal concept of civil rights. Originally intended to protect freed former slaves, the clause was later expanded by court interpretation to protect other minority groups.
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Establishment clause
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Component of the First Amendment to the Constitution that defines the right of the citizens to practice their religions without governmental interference. It also places a restriction on government creating a "wall of separation" between church and state.
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Ex post facto laws
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Laws that take effect after the act takes place. Congress is prohibited from enacting this type of legislation.
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Exclusionary rule
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Rule that resulted from the Mapp v. Ohio decision determining that police may obtain only that evidence that can be had through a legitimate search warrant. Other evidence found at the scene of the crime is not admissible, or is excluded, in the trial.
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Executive agreement
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Agreement made between the president and a leader of a foreign country that does not have to be ratified by the Senate.
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Executive office of the president
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Created by Franklin Roosevelt in 1939; it has four major policy making bodies today - the National Security Council, the Council of Economic Advisors, the Office of Management and Budget, and the Office of National Drug Control Policy.
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Executive order
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Order signed by the president that has the effect of law, even though it is not passed by Congress. An example of an executive order includes President Clinton's order legalizing the abortion bill, RU486.
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Executive privilege
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The ability of the president to protect personal material.
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Expressed power
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Specific power of the president as listed in Article I of the Constitution.
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Faction
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Term used by Madison in the Federalist # 10 to describe groups that are formed which threaten minority rights.
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Fairness doctrine
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Scrapped in 1987, it provided that the media air opposing opinions of the same issue.
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Family Medical Leave Act (1993)
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Act that gave unpaid emergency medical leave for employees with a guarantee that their job would not be taken away in the interim.
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Favorable balance of trade
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Refers to a country exporting more than they import. The United States has had an unfavorable balance of trade since World War II.
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Favorite son
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The presidential candidate backed by the home state at the party's nominating convention.
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Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA)
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In 1971 it set up restrictions on the amount of advertising used by a candidate, created disclosure of contributions over $100, and limited the amount of personal contributions a candidate could make on his or her behalf. In 1974 it set up a Federal Election Commission and established a system of federal matching funds for presidential candidates.
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Federal Reserve System
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Federal body that regulates the money supply by controlling open-market operations; buying and selling of government securities; and establishing reserve requirements, the legal limitations on money reserves that banks must keep against the amount of money they have deposited in Federal Reserve Banks and through discount rates, and the rate at which banks can borrow money from the Federal Reserve System.
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Federalism
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The overall division of power between the federal government and state governments; as defined in the Tenth Amendment of the Constitution. It specifically tells the states that they have reserved powers. Powers not delegated to the government by the Constitution are given to the respective states.
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Federalist Papers
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Written using the pen name Publius; John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison wrote a series of articles urging the adoption of the Constitution. They argued for a Constitution that would establish a government that could deal with "the tyranny of the majority" by creating three branches of government having distinctive and separate powers.
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Federalist Party
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Headed by Alexander Hamilton, this party, made up of the country's upper class, supported a strong national government and set a policy agenda that would solve the nation's economic problems.
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Fighting words doctrine
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Established in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942), the decision incorporated into state law the concept that the government can limit free speech if it can be proved that the result of speech will cause physical violence.
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Filibuster
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Tactic used in the Senate whereby a vote on legislation can be delayed through debate. The longest continuous filibuster was made by Strom Thurmond and lasted 24 hours.
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Fiscal federalism
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A concept of federalism where funding is appropriated by the federal government to the states with specific conditions attached. The legislation can be in the form of mandates.
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Fiscal policy
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Policy that determines how the economy is managed as a result of government spending and borrowing and the amount of money collected from taxes.
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Fletcher v. Peck (1810)
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Decision that established the precedent that the Supreme Court could rule a state law unconstitutional.
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Focus group
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Technique used by pollsters to determine how a cross section of voters feels about a particular topic.
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Food stamp program
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Federally funded program that gives food coupons to low-income people based on income and family size.
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Franking
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Privilege enjoyed by members of Congress entitling them to free postage for any mailings made as part of their official duties.
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Free Exercise Clause
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Phrase found in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution that guarantees an individual the right to pray and believe in the religion of his or her choice by making it illegal for Congress to pass laws that restrict this right.
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Freedom of Information Act (1974)
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Act that incorporates sunshine laws; opened up the government's meetings of record to the public and media.
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Front loading
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Refers to the scheduling of the early presidential primaries and its impact on the selection of the majority of presidential delegates.
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Front runner
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Designation given to the candidate who leads in the polls.
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Full faith and credit
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Phrase used to describe the mutual respect and legality of laws, public records, and judicial decisions made by states.
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Funded mandates
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Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states with federal funds to support them.
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Gender gap
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A significant deviation between the way men and women are.
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General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
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Agreement wherein new trade barriers would be avoided by member nations, existing tariffs would be eliminated, and protective tariffs would be used only for emergency situations.
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Gerrymandering
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State legislatures, based on political affiliation, create congressional districts, many of which are oddly shaped and favor the political party in power in the state making the changes.
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Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
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Case established the principle that Congress has sole authority over interstate commerce.
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Gitlow v. New York (1925)
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Landmark decision in that the Supreme Court incorporated the First Amendment to a state case for the first time.
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Global interdependence
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The degree of linkage among the community of nations.
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Good neighbor policy
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A foreign policy established by Franklin Roosevelt that aimed at improving relations with Latin America.
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Government
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Those institutions that create public policy.
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Government corporation
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Such as the Tennessee Valley Authority, created during the New Deal, having specific responsibilities that facilitate a specific operation of the government.
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Grand Old Party
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Known as the GOP, another way of identifying the Republic Party.
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Grassroots
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Political participation at the local level.
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Great Compromise
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Created a bicameral legislature at the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia in 1787. The compromise came about after delegates could not agree on the New Jersey plan that advocated one legislative house based on equal representation and the Connecticut plan that favored one house based on population.
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Gridlock
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Describes peoples' perception that Congress and the president are in a state of disagreement that results in little legislation passing.
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Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
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Currently the key economic measure that analyzes an upward or downward economic trend of the monetary value of all the goods and services produced within the nation on a quarterly basis.
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Gross National Product (GNP)
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The total of all goods and services produced in a year.
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Habeas corpus
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Right that safeguards a person from illegal imprisonment. Habeas corpus is Latin for "you should have the body." It refers to the writ requiring a person be brought before a court to determine whether he is being detained legally.
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Hard money
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Federally regulated campaign contributions made to political candidates and political parties. Under current law, hard money contributions cannot exceed $1000 per individual, per election cycle.
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High-tech campaign
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A major characteristic of the modern presidential campaign. The use of paid political ads, 30- and 60- second spots, paid infomercials incorporating charts and graphs, and sophisticated polling techniques have all been used in recent campaigns.
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Hyperpluralism
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A group theory characterized by many interest groups vying for control resulting in a government that is tied up in a gridlock.
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Immigration Act of 1991
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Act that shifted the quota of immigrants to Europe and aimed to attract immigrants who were trained workers.
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Impeachment
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Listing of accusations against a federal official of "high crimes and misdemeanors" for the purpose of removing that official from office for such misconduct. President Clinton was the only elected president to be impeached but not removed from office.
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Imperial Congress
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Describes a Congress that succeeds in establishing itself as dominant in legislative and foreign policy.
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Imperial presidency
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Term developed by historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr.; refers to presidents who dominate the political and legislative agenda.
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Implied powers
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Those powers in the Constitution that are not listed or delegated. An example of an implied power is the Elastic Clause, giving Congress the right to make laws that are "necessary and proper."
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Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment
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Doctrine that made the Bill of Rights apply to the states as a result of Supreme Court decisions. Even though the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868, incorporation started to take place in the 1920s. It reached a peak during the Warren Court in the late 1950s and 1960s.
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Incumbents
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Those elected officials who are running for new terms of office.
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Independent executive agency
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Such as the General Services Administration, which handles government purchasing and has a specific responsibility that facilitates the day-to-day operation of the government.
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Independent expenditures
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Non-federally regulated campaign contributions made by special interest groups, labor unions, and corporations to political action committees and political parties; also called soft money.
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Independent regulatory agencies
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Agencies that are quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial in nature and operation. Example include the Food and Drug Administration and Environmental Protection Agency.
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Indictment
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A formal list of charges made by a grand jury and guaranteed in the Fifth Amendment.
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Indirect tax
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Money paid to the government as a result of purchased goods.
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Inflation
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Economic situation characterized by steadily rising prices and falling purchasing power. It is, in part, caused by wage rates increasing faster than productivity.
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Infomercials
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Paid political commercials usually lasting longer than the average 30- or 60- second paid political ad.
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Information superhighway
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A linked conglomerate of computer-generated information also known as the internet.
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Inherent power
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Assumed powers of the president not specifically listed in the Constitution. Inherent powers are derived from the president's role as chief executive.
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Initiative
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Ballot proposal put forth by the public and voted on as a result of the petition process.
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Interest group
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A public or private organization, affiliation, or committee that has as its goal the dissemination of its membership's viewpoint.
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International Monetary Fund (IMF)
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A clearinghouse for member nations to discuss monetary issues and develop international plans and policies to deal with monetary issues. Regulating monetary exchange rates is its primary task.
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Invisible Primary
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The first phase of the presidential nomination process, where candidates attempt to gain front-runner status and raise the most money.
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Iron triangle network
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The interrelationship among bureaucracies, the government, interest groups, and the public, which also establishes a pattern of relationships among an agency in the executive branch, Congress, and one or more outside clients of that agency.
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Jim Crow laws
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Legislation that legalized segregation even after the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment.
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Joint committee
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Congressional committee made up of members of both political parties from the Senate and House of Representatives.
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Judicial activism
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A philosophy of judicial review that results in decisions that overturn precedent.
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Judicial restraint
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A court that maintains the status quo or mirrors what the other branches of government have established as current policy.
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Judicial review
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Derived from the Marbury v. Madison decision, it gives the Supreme Court the power to interpret the Constitution and specifically acts of Congress, the president, and the states.
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Judiciary committee
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Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.
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Keynote address
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Key speech at the national nominating convention that outlines the themes of the campaign.
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Laissez-faire
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French term literally meaning "hands off." Used to describe an economic philosophy of nongovernment intervention in economic matters such as regulation of business or establishing tariffs.
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Lame duck
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An officeholder who is either defeated or is retiring from the office in which he is serving, but still in office until his successor is sworn in; perceived to have little power or influence.
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Landslide
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Election where the winning candidate wins by more than 60 percent of the votes cast.
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Layer cake federalism
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Federalism characterized by a national government exercising its power independently from state governments.
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Legislative veto
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Provision granting Congress the right to veto regulations made by federal agencies; ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
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Libel
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Written publications that intentionally print false information that defames the character or an individual.
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Liberal
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A person who believes in greater government intervention, higher taxes, and a smaller military.
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Limited government
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Derived from the doctrine of natural rights, it was adopted by Jefferson and restricts the power of government especially in the area of protecting the rights of the people.
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Line item veto
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Allows the president to veto selectively what he considers unnecessary spending items contained in legislation. It was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
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Linkage institutions
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The means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy.
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Literacy laws
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Declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, they were passed by southern states after the Civil War aimed at making reading a requirement for voting so that freed slaves could not vote.
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Lobbyists
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The primary instruments of fostering a special interest group's goals to the policymakers. The term comes from people who literally wait in the lobbies of legislative bodies for senators and representatives to go to and from the floor of the legislatures.
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Logrolling
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A tactic used in Congress that is best illustrated by one legislator saying to another, "I'll vote for your legislation, if you vote for mine."
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Loose construction
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A liberal interpretation of the Constitution.
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Majority leader
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Persons selected by the political party holding a majority of the seats in the House and Senate.
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Majority opinion
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Court ruling participated in by the majority of justices hearing a case.
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Mandatory spending
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Those appropriation items in a budget that must be allocated. In the federal budget, the majority of spending items are mandatory and include Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, payment on the national debt, and certain components of defense spending.
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Marble cake federalism
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Also known as cooperative federalism, it developed during the New Deal and is characterized by the federal government's becoming more intrusive in what was traditionally states' powers.
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Marshall Court
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John Marshall's tenure as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, whose leadership resulted in the landmark decisions of Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden. These cases shifted power to the judiciary and federal government.
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Marshall Plan
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Developed by President Truman's Secretary of State, George C. Marshall, and implemented after World War II beginning in 1947, it gave massive aid to help rebuild Europe after the war.
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Mass media
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Consisting of television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, they reach a large segment of the population. It is also considered one of the linkage institutions.
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Matching funds
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Limited federal funds given to presidential candidates that match private donations raised during the campaign.
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McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
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Case that established the principle that the federal government was supreme over the state.
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McGovern-Frasier Commission
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Commission that brought significant representation changes to the Democratic Party. It made future conventions more democratic by including more minority representation.
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Medicaid
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A shared program between the federal and local governments that covers hospital and nursing home costs of low-income people.
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Medicare
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Program that covers hospital and medical costs of people 65 years of age and older as well as disabled individuals receiving Social Security.
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Minority leader
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Person selected by the political party holding a minority of the seats in the House and Senate.
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Minority opinion
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A dissenting opinion written by a justice representing a minority point of view in the losing side of a Supreme Court decision.
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Miranda rights
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Those rights directing police to inform the accused upon their arrest of their constitutional rights to remain silent, that anything said could be used in court, that they have the right to consult with a lawyer at anytime during the process, that a lawyer will be provided if the accused cannot afford one, that the accused understands these rights, and that the accused has the right to refuse any questions at any time and request a lawyer at any point.
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Monetary policy
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Policies developed by the Federal Reserve Board, such as raising or lowering interest rates, aimed at creating and maintaining a healthy economy.
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Motor Voter Act of 1993
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Signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to vote at motor vehicle departments.
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National committee
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The governing body of a political party made up of state and national party leaders.
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National convention
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Political forum in which each major political party selects its candidate for president and vice president and finalizes its respective platform.
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National nominating conventions
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The governing authority of the political party. They give direction to the national party chairperson, the spokesperson of the party, and the person who heads the national committee, the governing body of the party. They are also the forums where presidential candidates are given the official nod by their parties.
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National Security Council
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Chaired by the president, it is the lead advisory board in the area of national and international security. The other members of the council include the vice president, secretaries of state and defense, director of the Central Intelligence Agency, and chair of the joint chiefs of staff.
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Nationalization of the Bill of Rights
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A judicial doctrine of the Fourteenth Amendment that applied the Bill of Rights to the states in matters such as segregation.
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Natural rights
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Part of Locke's philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and property.
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New Democrat
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A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a less liberal, centrist Democrat.
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New federalism
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Political theory first espoused by Richard Nixon and carried out by Ronald Reagan. New federalism advocates the downsizing of the federal government and the devolution of power to the states.
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New Jersey Plan
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Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states.
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New world order
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President Bush's vision for world peace centering around the United States taking the lead to ensure that aggression be dealt with by a mutual agreement of the United Nations, NATO, and other countries acting in concert.
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Nonpreferential primary
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Where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the winning primary candidate.
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Nonrenewable resources
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Those natural resources such as oil, which based on consumption, are limited.
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Norris-La Guardia Act (1932)
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Act that prohibited employers from punishing workers who joined unions and gave labor the right to form union.
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North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
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Agreement that called for dramatic reductions of tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
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Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty of 1968
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Agreement that stopped and monitored the spread of nuclear weapons to countries who did not have the bomb.
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Nuclear Regulatory Commission
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Created as a part of the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, it was given jurisdiction to license and regulate commercial use of nuclear technologies and monitor waste storage and transportation of materials arising from its use.
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Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963
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Agreement that banned atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
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Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
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Its director, appointed with the consent of the Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted to the Congress in January each year. Besides formulating the budget, the OMB oversees congressional appropriations.
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Oral argument
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Legal argument made by each attorney in proceedings before the court in an attempt to persuade the court to decide the issue in their client's favor.
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Original jurisdiction
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Cases heard by the Supreme Court that do not come on appeal and that "affect ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party."
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Pardon
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Power to excuse an offense without penalty or grant release from a penalty already imposed.
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Partnership for peace
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President Clinton announced in 1993 a policy that allowed for the gradual admission into NATO of new member nations from the former Warsaw Pact and gave the designation of associate status in NATO to Russia.
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Party caucus
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Also known as the party conference, it is a means for each party to develop a strategy or position on a particular issue.
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Party dealignment
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A shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent ideological view of party identification.
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Party eras
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A time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have been four major party eras in American history - the era of good feeling, the Republican era following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.
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Party identification
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The manner in which a person acts when belonging to a political party.
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Party machine
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The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples.
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Party organization
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Formal structure of a political party on the national, state, and local levels.
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Party platforms
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Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party.
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Party realignment
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The movement of voters from one political party to another resulting in a major shift in the political spectrum (characterized by the start of a party era).
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Party regulars
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Enrolled party members who are usually active in the organization of a political party and support party positions and nominated candidates.
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Photo ops
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Photo opportunities.
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Plank
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Any of the principles contained in a political party's platform.
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Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
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Case that ruled that states had the right to impose "separate but equal" facilities on its citizens as well as create other laws that segregated the races.
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Pluralism
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A group theory that involves different groups all vying for control of the policy agenda. No single group emerges, forcing the groups to compromise.
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Plurality
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Winning number of votes received in a race containing more than two candidates but which is not more than half of the total votes cast.
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Pocket veto
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Rejection of legislation that occurs if the president does not sign a bill within 10 days and the Congress also adjourns within the same time period.
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Police power
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Power reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution.
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Policy agenda
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Agenda that results from the interaction of linkage institutions.
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Political action committees
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Known as PACs, they raise money from the special interest constituents and make contributions to political campaigns on behalf of the special interest group.
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Political consultant
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Person who specializes in running a political campaign. James Carville and Karl Rove are examples of political consultants.
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Political participation
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The different ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools that have influenced our elected officials.
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Political party
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A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government.
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Political socialization
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The factors that determine voting behavior such as family, religion, and ethnic background.
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Politics
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Who gets what, when, how, and why.
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Poll tax
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Made illegal by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution, it was a tax instituted by mainly southern states as a condition to vote and had the effect of preventing African-Americans from voting.
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Popular sovereignty
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Political doctrine that believes that government is created by and subject to the will of the people.
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Pork barrel legislation
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The practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors their home districts.
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Poverty line
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References the point at which an individual is considered living in what has been called a "culture of poverty."
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Preamble
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The introduction to the Constitution, outlining the goals of the document.
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Precedent
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Legal concept, also known as stare decisis, by which earlier court decisions serve as models in justifying decisions in subsequent cases.
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President pro tempore
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Temporary presiding officer of the Senate.
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Presidential primary
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Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party's national convention.
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Press secretary
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Key White House staff position; the press secretary meets with the White House press corps.
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Price supports
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The government's price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down.
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Prior restraint
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The actions of a governmental body which result in the censorship of written material. In the "Pentagon Papers" case, President Nixon asked for an injunction to halt the publication of the confidential Defense Department documents by the New York Times.
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Privileges and immunities
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The guarantees that the rights of a citizen in one state will be respected by other states. Also a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from abuses by a state.
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Procedural due process
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A series of steps that are established by the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments that protect the rights of the accused at every step of the investigation.
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Progressive tax
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A tax based upon the amount an individual earned, such as an income tax. Became legal as a result of the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
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Public opinion polls
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Scientific surveys aimed at gauging public preference of candidates and issues.
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Public policy
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The final action(s) taken by government in promotional, regulatory, or distributive form.
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Quasi-judicial
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A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them judicial power to interpret regulations they create.
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Quasi-legislative
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A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them legislative powers to issue regulations.
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Reagan Democrats
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Traditional Democratic middle-class voters turning to Ronald Reagan during the 1980s.
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Reapportionment
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The process in which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based on population increases or decreases.
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Reapportionment Act of 1929
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Act that provides for a permanent size of the House and for the number of seats, based on the census, each state should have.
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Recess appointment
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A presidential appointment made when the Congress is not in session that usually lacks enough votes in the Senate for confirmation. The position must be confirmed by the Senate by the end of the next session of Congress, or the position becomes vacant.
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Red tape
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Used to describe the difficulty it takes to get answers from a bureaucratic agency.
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Redistricting
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Process that takes place every ten years, as a result of the federal census, mandating state legislatures to redraw their congressional districts based on population gains and losses.
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Referendum
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Practice of submitting to popular vote a measure proposed by a legislative body; also called a proposition.
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Regressive tax
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A tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a sales tax.
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Regulatory policy
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Policy that results in government control over individuals and businesses. Examples of regulatory policy include protection of the environment and consumer protection.
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Rehnquist Court
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First nominated by Richard Nixon in 1971, William Rehnquist was confirmed as the 16th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court after Warren Burger retired in 1986. He was known as a conservative jurist and his stewardship over the court reflected a court of judicial restraint and conservative tendencies.
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Religious right
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An evangelical conglomeration of ultraconservative political activists, many of whom support the Republican Party.
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Renewable resources
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Those natural resources such as solar energy that can be used over again.
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Representative democracy
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Form of government that relies on the consent of the people and is often called a republican government.
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Republican Party
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Political party that evolved from the Whig Party, coming to power after Lincoln's election. It is one of the two current major political parties.
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Reserved Power clause
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Found in the Tenth Amendment, it gives states powers not delegated to the national government.
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Reverse discrimination
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Discrimination against whites or males, usually with regard to employment or education. Those who oppose affirmative action programs often claim reverse discrimination as a result of such programs. Alan Bakke is an example.
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Riders
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Amendments to bills, often in the form of appropriations, that sometimes have nothing to do with the intent of the bill itself and many times are considered to be pork barrel legislation.
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Rule of four
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Judicial concept employed by the Supreme Court requiring the approval of at least four justices before a case can be heard on appeal.
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Rules committee
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One of the most important committees of the House of Representatives; its function is to create specific rules for every bill to be debated by the full House.
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Safe seat
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An elected official who, as an incumbent, has an easy reelection as a result of his incumbency or the political makeup of the district.
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Safety net
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A minimum government guarantee that ensures that individuals living in poverty will receive support in the form of social welfare program.
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Sampling error
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Refers to a statistical error, usually within three percentage points, inherent in the polling process.
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Second Treatise of Civil Government
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Written by John Locke, it contains the blueprint principles found in the Declaration of Independence.
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Select committees
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Specially created congressional committees that conduct special investigations. The Watergate Committee and Iran-Contra investigators were select Senate committees.
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Senate confirmation
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The process outlined in Article Two of the Constitution, giving the Senate the authority to approve appointments made by the president.
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Senatorial courtesy
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Policy that gives senators the right to be notified by the president of pending judicial nominations. Once informed, the approval of the senators from the state from which the judge comes is obtained and the appointment process moves on. This courtesy does not apply to Supreme Court justice nominations.
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Seniority
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A system guaranteeing that those who serve in office the longest get preferential treatment. In Congress, those representatives who serve the longest get seniority in their committee assignments.
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Separate but equal
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The judicial precedent established in the Plessy v. Ferguson decision that enabled states to interpret the equal protection provision of the Fourteenth Amendment as a means of establishing segregation.
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Separation of church and state
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Also known as the "establishment clause," it is part of the First Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state-supported religion.
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Separation of powers
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Originally developed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of Natural Laws written during the Enlightenment and used by James Madison in Federalist No. 48. This important doctrine resulted in the establishment of three separate branches of government - the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each having distinct and unique powers.
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Shared powers
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Those powers that are concurrent, or overlapping, between the federal and state governments. Taxation is a shared power, for instance.
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Shay's Rebellion
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A failed attempt by Daniel Shays, a farmer who lost his property, to revolt against the state government.
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Simpson-Marzzoli Act (1987)
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Act that resulted in more than 2 million illegal aliens who were living in this country since 1982 being allowed to apply for legal status.
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Slander
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Speech that intentionally gives false information or defames the character of an individual.
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Soccer mom
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Term coined in 1996 presidential election referring to hose suburban women, some of whom are single parents, who supported President Clinton because of his articulation of their values.
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Social welfare
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Entitlement programs such as Social Security and programs such as Aid to Dependent Children paid for by the federal government.
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Soft money
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Unrestricted and unregulated legal campaign contributions made to political parties and intended for party development. Significant abuses of soft money contributions were discovered during the 1996 election.
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Solid South
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Dominance by the Democratic Party in the South following the Civil War. The Republicans made strong inroads when Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980 and after the Republicans gained control of the Congress in 1994.
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Sound bites
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30- or 60- second statements by politicians aired on the evening news shows or Sunday morning talk shows.
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Speaker of the House
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The representative from the majority party in the House of Representatives who sets the House agenda, presides over House meetings, recognizes speakers, refers bills to committees, answer procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes.
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Spin doctor
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Name given to political consultants who try to shape the story or actions of their clients to the media in a positive manner.
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Standing committees
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Committees that deal with proposed bills and also act in an oversight function. They are permanent, existing from one Congress to the next, such a the House Ways and Means and Senate Appropriations.
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Stare decisis
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Latin for judicial precedent, this concept originated in England in the twelfth century when judges settled disputes based on custom and tradition.
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State of the Union Address
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Constitutional requirement imposed on the president to deliver an annual report regarding the current state of the nation to Congress. Traditionally, the president delivers the State of the Union Address every January, in the form of a speech before a joint session of Congress.
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Straw vote
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Nonbinding vote used to determine the views of a small cross section of voters.
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Strict constructionists
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Individuals who believe in a conservative interpretation of the Constitution.
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Substantive due process
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Legal process that places limits related to the content of legislation and the extent government can use its power to enact unreasonable laws.
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Suffrage
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The right to vote guaranteed to African-Americans in the Fourteenth Amendment and women in the Nineteenth Amendment.
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Super Tuesday
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The Tuesday on which a number of primary votes take place.
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Superdelegates
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Democratic Party leaders and elected party officials who automatically are selected as delegates to the National Convention.
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Supremacy clause
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Clause that states that "the Constitution, and the laws of the United States... shall be the supreme law of the land."
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Symbolic speech
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Form of free speech interpreted by the Supreme Court as a guarantee under the First Amendment to the Constitution, such as wearing a black armband to protest a governmental action or burning an American flag in protest for political reasons.
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Taft-Harley Act (1947)
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Act that outlawed the closed union shop and certain kinds of strikes, permitted employers to sue union for violations of contracts, allowed the use of injunctions to stop union activities, and allowed states to adopt right-to-work laws, giving employers more rights regarding the establishment of union shops. Finally, the act gave the president the right to step in and prevent a strike by an entire industry, such as the steel or auto industry, if such an action would threaten the nation's health and safety.
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Talking heads
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Politicians who use sound bites or other means to present a superficial look at a policy position rather than an in-depth approach in explaining their views.
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Third political parties
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Political parties that can be described as ideological, single-issue orientated, economically motivated, and personality driven. Examples include the Free Soil Party, Know-Nothings, Populist, and Bull Moose Parties. In 1996 Ross Perot created a new national third party called the Reform party.
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Thirty-second spots
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Paid political ads 30 seconds in duration.
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Three-Fifths Compromise
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Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it was adopted by the delegates and counted every five slaves as three people for representation and tax purposes.
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Ticket splitting
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Process by which voters choose a candidate from one political party for one elective office and another candidate from a different party for another elective office.
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Tracking poll
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Polls conducted by media outlets to gauge the potential outcome of a political election on a periodic basis.
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Trial balloons
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Selective leaks aimed at testing the political waters.
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Twenty-fifth Amendment
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Constitutional amendment outlining the criteria for presidential selection and presidential disability.
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Two-party system
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Two political parties controlling representation in the government. In the United states, the Democrats and Republican have dominated elections because of the "winner-take-all" electoral system.
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Unalienable rights
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Rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, which are derived from the doctrine of natural rights.
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Unfunded mandates
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Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states without federal funds to support them.
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Unanimous decisions
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A decision made by the Supreme Court that has no dissent. A unanimous decision by the Court is 9-0.
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Unitary system of government
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Type of government that centralizes all the powers of government into one central authority.
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Universal suffrage
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Right of all qualified adults to vote.
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Unwritten Constitution
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Traditions, precedent, and practice incorporated into our form of government that add to the Constitution's elasticity and its viability. Political parties, the president's cabinet, political action committees, and the federal bureaucracy are important examples.
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Veto
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Power of the president to prevent enactment of legislation passed by Congress. A two-thirds majority vote of each house is required to override a presidential veto.
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Virginia Plan
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Offered at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on the population of each state.
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Voting Rights Act of 1965
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Act that finally made the Fifteenth Amendment a reality. As a result of this act, any state not eliminating the poll tax and literacy requirements would be directed to do so by the federal government. It also resulted in the establishment of racially gerrymandered congressional districts in the 1980s and 1990s.
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Wagner Act
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Also called the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, it gave workers involved in interstate commerce the right to organize labor unions and engage in collective bargaining and prevented employers from discriminating against labor leaders and taking action against union leaders.
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War Powers Act
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1973 act that states that a president can commit the military only after a declaration of war by the Congress, by specific authorization by Congress, if there is a national emergency, or if the use of force is in the national interest of the United States.
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Warren Court
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Nominated by President Eisenhower in 1954, Earl Warren is best known for the court's unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) soon after he took office. His court also had the reputation of often being a liberal, activist court.
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Watergate
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Refers to the office complex in Washington, D.C., where members of the committee to re-elect Richard Nixon, posing as burglars, broke into the offices of the Democratic Party's national headquarters. They were caught, and the scandal ultimately led to Nixon's resignation.
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Whips
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Also known as assistant floor leaders, they check with party members and inform the majority leader of the status and feelings of the membership regarding issues that are going to be voted on. Whips are responsible for keeping party members in line and having an accurate count of who will be voting for or against a particular bill.
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White House staff
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Managed by the White House Chief of Staff, who directly advises the president on a daily basis, it includes the more than 600 people who work at the White House, from the chef to the advance people who make travel arrangements. The key staff departments include Intergovernmental Affairs. It includes the support services of Scheduling, Personnel, and Secret Service and the policy offices of the National Security Affairs, Domestic Policy Affairs, and cabinet secretaries.
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Workfare
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An alternative to the traditional welfare, where an individual is trained to work instead of receiving welfare.
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World Bank
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Called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, it provides monetary assistance to nations for the development of industries and aims to stimulate economic growth of third-world nations.
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Writ of certiorari
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Latin for "to be made more certain," the process in which the Supreme Court accepts written briefs on appeal based on the rule of four.
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