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374 Cards in this Set
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inductive method
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process of making many observations until confident enough to draw generalizations and predictions from the many observations
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hypothetico–deductive method
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where you start with a question and a guess at an answer (hypothesis)
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aspects of experimental design that help ensure objective/reliable results
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sample size/ control group/ placebo/ double blind
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fact
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information that can be verified by any trained person– iron deficiency leads to anemia
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law
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generalization about the predictable ways matter and energy behave
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theory
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explanatory statement derived from facts theories and confirmed hypothesis
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list the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest
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organism/organsystem/organ / tissue/cell/organelles/molecules/atoms
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reductionistic viewpoint
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the theory that a large complex system like the human body can be understood by studying its simpler parts
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holistic viewpoints
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theory that there are emergent properties of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of its separate parts
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T/F human beings are more than the sum or their parts
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T
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homeostasis
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the bodys ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
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why is homeostasis central to physiology
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if the body cannot maintain homeostasis it can be harmful or fatal to cells
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negative feedback
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a
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positive feedback
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self amplifying cycle, change leads to even greater change in the same direction rapid change
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examples of positive feedbacks beneficial and harmful effects
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positive feedback can help things like giving birth but can circle out of control and need emergency care like for a high fever
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describe the biologically important properties of water
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polar covalent bond, v shaped with 105 deg this makes it polar. Like magnets water molecules are attracted to each other giving it a set of properties that account for its ability to support life–solvency, cohesion, adhesion, chemical reactivity, thermal stability
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hydrophilic substances
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substances that dissolve in water
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hydrophobic substances
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substances that o not dissolve in water like fats
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Squamous
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ravioli shaped cell
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Cuboidal
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cube shaped cell
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Columnar
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tall cells
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intracellular fluid (ICF)
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fluid inside of a cell
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extracellular fluid (ECF)
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fluid outside of the cell
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interstitial fluid (ISF)
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interstitial fluid is found in the extracellular spaces between tissue cells
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body cells are bathed in
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interstitial fluid
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structure of a plasma membrane
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surrounds the cell, made of proteins and lipids
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plasma membrane– function of lipid component
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hydrophilic heads face the outside, hydrophobic tails face the inside
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Phospholipids drift
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this movement allows the membrane to move
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plasma membrane– function of carbohydrate component
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Protection immunity cancer defense cell adhesion fertilization embryonic development
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plasma membrane– function of glycocalyx component
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carbohydrate coating on the cells surface protection, immunity to infection, defense cancer, fertilization
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explain what is meant by a selectively permeable membrane
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allows some things through but prevents other things from coming or going
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passive transport mechanism
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random molecular motion provides the energy– filtration, diffusion, osmosis
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osmolarity and its importance
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the number of osmoles of solute per liter of solution clinical solutions based on this
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tonicity and its importance
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ability of a solution cause osmotic and to affect the fluid volume and pressure in a cell
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diffusion
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spreading out or mixing of particles like in the dye/water experiment dye spreads out but neither chemically change |
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osmosis
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movement through a semipermeable membrane down a concentration gradient like experiment with the blood on the slide
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A hypertonic solution will cause cells to
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shrink
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what ways can a tissue change from one type to another
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Differentiation–drastic, unspecialized cells become specialized
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Metaplasia–
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subtle, change from one type of mature cell to another, cuboidal before puberty becomes stratified squamous after
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name and describe the modes of tissue growth
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Hypertrophy
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Hyperplasia
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k |
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Neoplasia
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name and describe the modes and causes of tissue shrinkage and death
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atrophynecrosis
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apoptosis
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programmed cell death |
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name and describe the ways the body repairs damaged tissues
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regeneration
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fibrosis
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Anatomy
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the study of structure
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Physiology
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the study of function
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The Scientific method
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way to ask/answer scientific questions by making observations and doing experiments
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Deductive V. Inductive Reasoning
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deductive you start with a question inductive you start with facts
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Deductive Reasoning
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ask a question formulate a hypothesis then confirm the guess
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Inductive reasoning
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making numerous observations until you are confident drawing a general conclusion
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Mechanism V. Teleology
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Teleology is the result or reason of a change
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Mechanism
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seeks to explain life processes by identifying the sequence of physical and chemical events leading to a change in body function
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Teleology
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teleology seeks to explain life processes by identifying the end result or purpose of a change in body function
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Dynamic steady state
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a
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Equilibrium
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Balance between forces like between osmosis and filtration
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Negative feedback loops
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Redirect the body to correct some value that is out of normal range
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Regulatory Control systems
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a
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Conservation of Mass and Energy
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mass and energy can neither be created nor destroyed
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Control of Cell Destiny
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cells have three destinies–grow and divide, remain alive and function without dividing, die
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gross anatomy
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study of structures that can be see with the naked eye
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cytology
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the study of structure and function of cells
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histology
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the study of cells with a microscope
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sagittal plane
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left and right
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lining of the lungs
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visceral pleura (inside)
parietal pleura(outside) |
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lining of the heart
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visceral pericardium
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parietal paricardium
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serous membranes of the abdominal cavity
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visceral peritoneum
missing something |
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epithelium
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separates the oustide of the body from the inside
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what separates the intracellular from the extracellular
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cell membrane
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what separates the outside of the body from the inside of the body
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epithelium
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something is considered inside the body once...
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it passes the epithelial layer
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once water is absorbed through the epithelial layer inside the GI tract
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it is inside the body
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Hypertrophy
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enlargement of preexisting cells
muscle growth through exercise |
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Hyperplasia
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tissue growth through cell multiplication
childhood growth |
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Neoplasia
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growth of a tumor
abnormal tissue |
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atrophy
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shrinkage through loss in cell size or number
normal aging, lack of use |
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necrosis
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premature death due to toxins trauma or infections
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infarction–
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death due to no blood supply
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regeneration
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replacement of dead or damaged cells with original cells
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fibrosis
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replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue
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Osteology
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the study of bone
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Name the tissues and organs that compose the skeletal system
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bones cartilage ligaments
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six functions of the skeletal system
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support protection movement electrolyte balance acid/base balance blood formation
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Describe four types of bones classified by shape
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long, short, flat, irregular
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Describe the general features of a long bone and a flat bone
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outer shell of dense bone enclosing medullary (marrow) cavity. At the ends of the bone the space is occupied by spongy bone
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Long bone
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longer than wide ridged levers acted upon by muscles
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Short bones
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equal in length and width glide across one another in multiple directions
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Flat bones
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protect soft organs curved but wide and thin
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Medullary cavity
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marrow cavity
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Periosteum
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outer coating of bone collagen and osteogenic
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Endosteum
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inner coating of marrow cavity bone forming and degrading
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Diaphysis
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shaft of a long bone/ long part of a bone
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Epiphysis
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head of a long bone
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Articular cartilage
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the cartilage on a bone that contacts another bone
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Nutrient foramina
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minute holes in a bone where blood vessels penetrate
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Osteogenic Cells
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stem cells that give rise to most other bone cell types, reside in endosteum, periosteum, or central canals, ONLY source for new osteoblasts
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Osteoblasts
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bone forming cells, not in the cell cycle, build bone, deposit initial layer of bone tissue that will be calcified later
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Osteocytes
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former osteoblasts that are trapped in the matrix they deposited found within lacunae of compact bone, monitor the bone stress and strains
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Osteoclasts
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bone dissolving cells big with a ruffled comb like edge
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Lacunae
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tiny cavities where osteocyte cells reside
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Canaliculi
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little canals that connect osteocyte protrusions
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Compact bone
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onion like concentric lamellae around a central canal connected to each other by canaliculi
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Lamellae
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concentric ring that contain osteocytes
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Interstitial lamellae
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contains osteocytes that is in between the concentric lamellae
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Perforating canals
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Volkmann diagonal canals
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Osteon
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concentric lamellae with a central canal where veins and nerves run
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Spongy Bone
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consists of a lattice of delicate slivers of bone called spicules and trabeculae
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Red bone marrow
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myeloid tissue, rich in stem cells, produces blood cells, most marrow in children, in skull, vertebra, ribs, sternum, hip, proximal heads of humerus and femur
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Yellow bone marrow
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no longer produces blood, can transform back into red marrow in the event of severe or chronic anemia
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Spongy bone
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type of bone tissue found in the interior of flat bones and epiphyses
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Collagen
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organic matter, what the osteoblasts deposit, flexibility (rebar)
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Hydroxyapatite
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inorganic matter, resistance to compression, stiffness (cement)
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two mechanisms of bone formation
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ossification and osteogenesis
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two methods of ossification
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intramembranous and endochondral
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intramembranous ossification
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flat bones of the skull and most of scapula replaces connective tissue mediated by mesenchymal stem cells start with a membrane layer then you ossify or harden
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endochondral ossification
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everything except flat bones, replaces hyaline cartilage mediated by chondrocytes in cartilage. 6th wk of fetal development–20yrs. Most bones develop this way vertebrae, limbs, ribs
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Interstitial growth
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lengthening, elongation at the epiphyseal plate, stops just after puberty
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Appositional growth
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increase in diameter on outside of bone, only form of growth in mature bones
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Hyperplasia
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cells getting larger
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Growing bone has a epiphyseal
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plate
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Bone no longer growing has a epiphyseal
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gline or scar
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Bone remodeling
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repairs micro fractures, releases minerals into the blood, reshapes bones in response to use and disuse, occurs through ought life about 10% per year
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Wolfs law
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architecture of bone determined by mechanical stresses placed on it
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Mineral deposition
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crystallization process in which calcium and phosphate and other ions are taken from the blood plasma and deposited in bone tissue
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How does mineral deposition occur?
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Osteoblasts produce collagen fibers calcium gets to a high enough level first few crystals attract more most tissues have inhibitors that prevent ossification, osteoblasts neutralize these inhibitors
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Ectopic ossification
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abnormal calcification like in lungs brain eyes…
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Blood takes precedent
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body needs calcium in its blood more than in its bone
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Solubility product
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critical value in which you have enough calcium and phosphate ions to allow crystal formation
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Mineral reabsorption
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process of dissolving bone and releasing mineral into the blood
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role of the bones in regulating blood calcium and phosphate levels
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bones serve as a bank for minerals, minerals can be withdrawn at any time
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hypocalcemia
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blood calcium deficiency, muscle spasms, can be caused by vitamin D deficiency, diarrhea, pregnancy
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hypercalcemia
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blood calcium excess, sluggish reflexes, depression due to slowed nerve and muscle responsiveness
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calcium homeostasis depends on a balance of
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dietary intake, urinary and fecal loss, and exchange between osseous tissue
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what hormones affect calcium homeostasis
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calcitriol parathyroid hormone PTH calcitonin
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calcitriol
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raises blood calcium levels by inducing osteoclast function to pull calcium out of the bones and reducing loss of calcium through excretion of kidneys and increasing absorbtion of calcium in digestive tract
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Parathyroid hormone PTH
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raises blood calcium levels by helping synthesize calcitriol increases osteoclast activity and reduce osteoblast number, more urinary phosphate excretion and less urinary calcium excretion
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Calcitonin
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lowers blood calcium levels activate osteoblasts activity and number to pull calcium out of the blood and into the bone, and reduce osteoclast activity
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Osteosarcoma
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most common malignant bone disorder, found most often in teens, typically found in the metaphyseal area adjacent to the growth plate, most often found in distal femur or proximal tibia, treated by chemo then surgery then more chemo to prevent anything that could have spread from growing
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Gout
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buildup of uric acid in your blood which then crystalizes in the synovial fluid around a joint, alcoholics, obese people, family history, hypertensive people more likely to get this, treatment is diet change removal of red meat, NSAIDs
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State the approximate number of bones in the adult body
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206 |
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functions of muscles
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movement, stability, opening/passageway control, heat production, glycemic control
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myology
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the study of the muscular system
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kinds of muscle tissue
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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muscle is specialized for one purpose
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converting chemical energy in ATP into the mechanical energy of motion
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universal characteristics of muscle
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responsiveness, conductivity, contractility, extensibility, elasticity
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muscles can only contract they cannot push things so…
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muscles must work as pairs
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connective tissues associated with a skeletal muscle
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fascia
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deep fascia
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found between adjacent muscles
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superficial fascia
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found between skin and muscles, contains fat tissue
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three parts of a muscle
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origin, belly, insertion
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origin
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attachment to stationary end of muscle
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belly
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thicker middle region of muscle
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insertion
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attachment to mobile end of muscle
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Fusiform
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belly in the middle tendon on either end, function
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Triangle
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triangle shaped, function
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Unipennate
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half of a feather, function
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Bipennate
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full feather, function
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Multipennate
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multiple tendons, function
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Circular
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circle shaped, opens and closes openings of the body
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intrinsic muscles
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contained and effect movement within a region
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extrinsic muscles
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muscles contained in a region that effect motion in a different region
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Indirect attachment
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anything with a tendon– tendons bridge the gap between muscle ends and bony attachment
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Aponeurosis
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tendon that is a flat broad sheet like in your palm
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Retinaculum
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tendon that lays over other tendons
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Direct/ fleshy attachment
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direct conection muscle to bone
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Muscle fiber
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muscle cell
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Perimysium
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connective tissue hold one fascicle and has blood vessels and nerves in it
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Endomysium
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hold one muscle fiber
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Muscle fascicle
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muscle fiber grouping
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Epimysium
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just inside fascia hold entire muscle
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Fascicles
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group of muscle cells
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Prime mover
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produces most of the force
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Synergist
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stabilizes and modifies direction of movement
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Antagonist
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oposes prime mover, prevents excessive movement
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Fixator
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prevents movement of bone that prime mover is attached to
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Sarcolemma
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cell membrane, has tunnel like transverse t tubles
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Transverse tubule
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part of the sarcolemma that is inside the cell
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Sarcoplastmic reticulem
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the form endoplasmic reticulum takes on in muscle is a series of interconnected dilated calcium storage sacs called terminal cisternae
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The sarcoplasmic reticulum does what?
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carry electrical signals from the cell surface to the interior
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Triad
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t tubule, sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum
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Mitochondria produce the atp that muscles need and are found
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throuought the muscle
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In one muscle fiber the tube things are
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myofibrils
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Each muscle fiber contains many
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myofibrils
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Each myofibril is composed of many
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sarcomeres
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Sarcoplasm
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cytoplasm contains glycogen for stored energy and myoglobin for binding oxygen
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When you gain muscle you are
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adding more myofibrils to each muscle fiber
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list level of organization starting with skeletal muscle
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skeletal muscle– fascicle– muscle fiber– myofibrils– sarcomere– thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin, tropomyosin, troponin)
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sarcomere
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from one z disc to the next z disk
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actin
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touches the z disk
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myosin
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sits in the middle of the z discs held in place by titin
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muscles contract by
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the z discs getting closer together
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titin
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holds the myosin myofilament in place between the z discs
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H zone
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space between the ends of actin, in contraction the H zone disaperes
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When your muscle contracts
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the pieces of actin get closer together and the myosin gets closer to the z disc causin the sarcomere to be shorter in length
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Each muscle fiber is innervated by
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only ONE motor neuron
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Skeletal muscles are innervated by
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somatic motor neurons
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Acetycholine
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ACh neurotransmitter that is released from nerve fibers and causes stimulation of muscle cell
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Schwann cell
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envelopes and isolates NMJ
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Synaptic cleft
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tiny gap between the nerve and muscle cells
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Motor end plate
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specialized region of muscle cell suface
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Synapse
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region where a muscle fiber makes a functional connection with its target cell (NMJ)
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When you muscle is relaxed there is K+ _____ the cell and Na+ ______ the cell
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K+ inside and Na+ outside
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excitation
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action potentials in the nerve lead to formation of action potentials in muscle fiber Nerve signal stimulates voltage–gated calcium channels that result in exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing ACh – ACh release
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excitation–contraction coupling
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action potentials on the sarcolemma activate myofilaments
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contraction
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shortening of muscle fiber or at least formation of tension
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relaxation
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return of fiber to its resting length
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Motor unit
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the amount of muscle fibers touched by ONE neouron
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how many nerves can touch a muscle fiber?
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only one
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one nerve touches how many muscles?
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depends on which muscle
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what decides how many muscle fibers a nerve touches
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its about how controlled the movement has to be
controlled movement like eye muscles, touches few muscle fibers larger muscles nerves touch more muscle fibers |
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sodium potassium pump...
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puts sodium and potassium back in their places
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relaxation phase
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Ach chewed up by ache
sodium and potassium put back calcium removed |
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higher frequency
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gradual increase in strenght
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temporal/wave summation
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no full recovery
sustained fluttering contractions |
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maximum frequency
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muscle has no time to relax
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twitches fuse into smooth prolonged contraction
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complete tetanus rare in human body
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length tension – overly contracted
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actin ends overlapped things are crunched too much to flex any more
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length tension – optimum resting length
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all myosin heads can reach actin but space between pieces of actin
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length tension – overly stretched
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not all myosin heads can reach actin
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isometric muscle contration
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develops tension without changing length
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isotonic muscle contraction
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tension and muscle length changeg
tension developed while shortening or lengthening |
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isotonic concentric
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shortening
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isotonic eccentric
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lengthening
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to lift an object you go through what phases in what order
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isometric phase builds muscle tension then isotonic muscle length changes
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Cross bridge cycle step 1– ATP hydrolysis...
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cocks myosin head
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brossbridge cycle step 2–
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myosin head binds actin forming crossbridge
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cross bridge cycle step 3–
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release of ADP and P flexes myosin head
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cross bridge cycle step 4 –
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a new ATP binds myosin head dissolving the crossbridge
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myoglobin
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in your muscles
stores oxygen |
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aerobic respiration
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uses oxygen from myoglobin
lasts the first few seconds of a workout |
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phosphagen system
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taking two ADP and making one AMP and one ATP
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creatine kinase
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made from a ADP and creatine Phosphate
is turned into a ATP and a creatine |
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anaerobic respiration
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without oxygen
creates lactic acid |
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long term energy needs– eventually your body will return to
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aerobic respiration once your body catches up
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recovery period after exercize is when
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your body replenishes all of its stores of oxygen
replenishes the phosphate system removes lactic acid to glucose in kidneys and liver |
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slow twitch muscles AKA:
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slow oxidative (SO)
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Slow twitch muscles
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more mitochondria myoglobin and capillaries
adapted to aerobic respiration and resistance to fatigue |
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fast twitch
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rich in enzymes for phosphagen and lactic systems
sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium quickly so contractions are quicker |
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proportions of muscle types vary depending on
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genetics– sprinter V marathoner
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Causes of muscle fatigue
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ATP synthesis declines as glycogen is consumed causes other processes to not work
NMJ uses up Ach lactic acid inhibits enzyme function |
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Purpose of nervous system
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receive info from receptors, process info and determine response, issue commands to effectors
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Receptors
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cells and organs specialized to detect changes in the body and its environment
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Neural integration
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processing info and determining response
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Effectors
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cells and organs that carry out the body’s responses
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Flow of information
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peripheral receptors to central for neural integration to peripheral effectors
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PNS
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peripheral nervous system– everything that is not central nervous system
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CNS
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central nervous system– brain and spinal cord
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Sensory neurons
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afferent neurons– PNS detect changes in the body info is transmitted to the brain
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Interneurons
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association neurons– CNS between sensory and motor neurons, process store and receive info, make decisions
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Motor neurons
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efferent neurons– PNS send signals out to muscles and glands
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Excitability
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irritability able to respond to changes in the body and external environment
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Conductivity
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produce traveling electrical signals that quickly reach other cells at distant locations
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Secretion
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when electrical signal reaches end of nerve fiber a chemical neurotransmitter is secreted
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Cell body
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perikaryon– single central nucleus
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Dendrites
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branches that allow it to from synapses with many other neurons
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Lipofuscin
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product of breakdown of worn out organelles
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A neuron has
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cell body, many short dendrites, single nucleus, single axon
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Axon
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transduces signal towards synaptic knob
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Electrical signal travels
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one direction out of cell
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Schwan cells are located
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around axon helping speed up the signal in the peripheral nervous system
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Multipolar neuron
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most common– many dendrites one axon
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Bipolar neuron
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olfactory, retina, ear– one dendrite one axon
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Unipolar neuron
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sensory from skin and organs– directly to spinal cord, cell body is off to the side
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Anaxonic neuron
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many dendrites no axon– VISION helps in visual processes
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Any signal will travel in what way through a neuron
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dendrite– cell body– axon
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Oligodendrocytes
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neuroglial CNS– form the myelin sheath
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Astrocytes
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neuroglial CNS– form the framework, blood brain barrier, regulate brain tissue fluid
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Ependymal cells
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neuroglial CNS– line cavities and produce cerebral spinal fluid CSP
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Microglia
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macrophages neuroglia CNS– formed from monocytes, help deal with infection, cause of brain swelling
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Schwan cells
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neuroglial PNS– part of myelin sheath
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Oliogodendrocytes and schwann cells are wrapped around the
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myelin sheath many times thoroughly insulating it
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Myelination first begins
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in the womb during fetal development
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NGF
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Nerve growth factor
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Nerve growth factor
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protein secreted by gland and muscle cells, picked up by axon terminals of growing motor neurons– prevents apoptosis
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Growth of a single axon is a response to
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a baby neuron reaching for nerve growth factor
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Peripheral nerve regeneration can occur if
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soma and neurilemmal tube us intact
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Process of peripheral nerve regeneration
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stranded end of axon goes away but myelin sheath stays, cell soma swells, healthy axon stump puts out “feelers”, feelers find stranded end then grow inside the old myelin sheath to the original destination, cell returns to normal
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Electrical potential
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difference in concentration of charged particles between different parts of the cell
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Electrical current
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flow of charged particles from one point to another within the cell
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Resting potential
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–70 mV
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Threshold for action potential mV
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–50 mV
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Phases of an action potential
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local potential/ threshold/ depolarization/ peak/ repolarization/ hyperpolarization/ resting
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Local potential
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small influx of sodium ions that fizzles out before reaching threshold and causing an action potential
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Action potential peaks at mV
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+35 mV
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Action Potential
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h
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Absolute refractory period
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during depolarization and repolarization, no stimulus will trigger action potential
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When can no stimulus trigger another AP
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absolute refractory period
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Relative refractory period
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during hyperpolarization, especially strong stimulus can trigger a new AP
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Refractory periods occur to how much of the membrane at a time
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one small patch and recovers quickly
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Speed of signal transmission along nerve fibers depends on
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diameter of fiber and presence of myelin
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Fastest nerve fiber is what kind (lg/sm and myelinated or not)
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large myelinated
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Spaces in between Schwann cells are called
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nodes
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Schwan cells allow a signal to
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jump from Schwann cell to Schwann cell instead of flow down like a river
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Salutatory conduction is
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the idea of the a signal jumping from node to node
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A signal travels in only one direction because
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the node “behind” the signal is still in a refractory period so the signal can only go forward
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Axodendritic
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when a presynaptic neuron meets a dendrite
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Axosomatic
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when a presynaptic neuron meets a soma or cell body
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Axoaxonic
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when a presynaptic neuron meets an axon
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Anything that can stimulate a neuron is a
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neurotransmitter
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Categories of neurotransmitters
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acetylcholine, amino acids, monoamines, neuropeptides
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Synaptic delay
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slows transmission of nerve signals – time from arrival of nerve signal at synapse to start of action potential in postsynaptic cell
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3 kinds of synapses
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excitatory cholinergeic , inhibitory GABA–ergic, excitatory adrenergic
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Excitatory adrenogenic synapse depends of
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Nor epinephrine
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Steps of excitatory cholinergic synapse
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nerve signal opens voltage gated calcium channels, triggers ACh release, ACH receptors trigger opening of NA channels causing local potential
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Steps of inhibitory GABAergic synapse
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nerve signal triggers GABA release, GABA receptors trigger –Cl release producing hyperpolarization, post synaptic neuron less likely to reach threshold
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Steps in excitatory adrenergic synapse
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2nd messenger system, cAMP has many effects including producing a postsynaptic potential
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Mechanisms to turn off stimulation
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diffusion of neurotransmitter away from synapse into ECF where astrocytes return it to the neurons, synaptic knob reabsorbs amino acids and monoamines be endocytosis and breaks them down with monoamine oxidase, AChE degrades ACh in synaptic cleft
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Neuromodulators
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modify the synaptic transmission, raise or lower number of receptors, alter neurotransmitter release, synthesis or breakdown
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Neural integration
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the ability of your neurons to process information, store and recall it, and make decisions
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EPSP
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Excitatory post synaptic potentials
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any voltage change in the direction of threshold that makes a neuron more likely to fire (cholinergic and adrenergic) HUMP on graph
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IPSP
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Inhibitory Post synaptic potentials
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any voltage change away from threshold that makes a neuron less likely to fire (GABA) HOLE on graph
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Temporal summation
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when single synapse receives many EPSP in a short period of time – intense stimulation by one presynaptic neuron
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Spatial summation
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when single synapse receives many ESPS from many presynaptic cells – simultaneous stimulation by several presynaptic neurons
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Summation
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+ plus + the adding of the postsynaptic potentials (inhibitory and excitatory signals) and responding to their net effect
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Facilitation
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one neuron enhances the effect of another– combined effort
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Inhibition
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+ plus – process in which one presynaptic neuron suppresses the other– reduces or halts unwanted transmission
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Qualitative information
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depends on which neuron fires (sweet/salty)
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Quantitative information
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strong stimuli excite several different neurons and more rapid rate (intensity)
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Facilitated zone
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a single cell can only make it easier for the post synaptic cell to fire
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Discharge zones
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a single cell can produce firing– many connections
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Spinal cord
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information highway between brain and body, extends through vertebral canal from foramen magnum to first lumbar vertebra, 31 pairs of spinal nerves
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Segment
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part of the spinal cord supplied by each pair of spinal nerves
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Cervical enlargement
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thicker part of the spinal cord that hold nerves to upper limbs
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Lumbar enlargement
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thicker part of the spinal cord that holds that go to the pelvic region and lower limbs
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Medullary cone
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cord tapers to a point inferior to lumbar enlargement
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Cauda equine
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bundle of nerve roots that occupy the vertebral canal from L2 to S5
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Plexus
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web shape that nerves take on just outside of the spinal cord
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Meninges
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dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater that enclose the brain and spinal cord
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Grey matter
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central area of spinal cord shaped like a butterfly surrounded by three columns of white matter, very little myelin, information processing
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White matter
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abundantly myelinated axons, carry signals from one part of CNS to another
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Epineurium
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outside of one nerve
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Perineurium
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bundles (fascicles) of neurons
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Endoneurium
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outside of one neuron
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Fascicle
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group of myelinated and myelinated nerve fibers
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Ganglion
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hcluster of somas outside the CNS enveloped in an endoneurium continuous with that of the nerve
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Contralateral
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when a signal starts on one side of the body and ends on the other
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Ipsilateral
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when a signal starts and ends on one side of the body
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Decussation
|
fibers cross sides
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Paraplegia
|
paralysis of lower limbs– damage in the lumbar region
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Quadriplegia
|
paralysis of all limbs – damage close to cervical
|
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Hemiplegia
|
paralysis of one side of the body due to stroke or other brain injury
|
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|
Muscle spindles
|
when muscle realizes it’s too stretched out and so it contracts
|
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|
|
Tendon organs
|
when a tendon has too much pressure on it so that the muscle relaxes
|
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|
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Flexor withdrawal reflexes
|
occurs during withdrawal of foot from pain – polysynaptic arc, controlled by neural circuitry in spinal cord
|
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|
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Crossed extensor reflex
|
maintains balance after a flexor withdrawal by extending the other leg occurs before pain is registered by the brain
|
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Rostral
|
toward the forehead
|
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Caudal
|
toward the spinal cord
|
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Cerebrum
|
the majority of the brain, longitudinal fissure, corpus callosum
|
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|
Cerebellum
|
the little back part, occupies posterior cranial fossa, 50% brain neurons
|
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|
Gyri
|
thick folds of the brain
|
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|
Sulci
|
shallow grooves of the brain
|
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|
|
Corpus callosum
|
thick nerve bundle at the bottom of longitudinal fissure that connects the hemispheres
|
|
|
|
Brainstem
|
four main parts – diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
|
|
|
|
Mater in order out to in of head
|
dura mater (spinal fluid in between) arachnoid mater pia mater
|
|
|
|
Neocortex
|
separates us from our closest relatives (apes) what makes the humans the humans 90% of cerebral cortex
|
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|
|
Cerebrospinal fluid
|
clear colorless liquid that fills the ventricles and canals of the CNS mainly composed of blood plasma, production begins with filtering of the blood plasma through capillaries of the brain
|
|
|
|
Purpose of CSF
|
buoyance allows the brain to be big without squishing itself, protection from strikes, chemical stability
|
|
|
|
Brain receives _____% blood supply
|
15%
|
|
|
|
Blood brain barrier system
|
strictly regulates what substances can get from the bloodstream into the tissue fluid of the brain
|
|
|
|
Astrocyte feet
|
additional bouncer at the bar door to help keep the riff raff out of the bar
|
|
|
|
Olfactory nerve
|
1 bulb, fascicles that go down into nose, sense of smell
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|
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|
Optic nerve
|
2 optic chiasm (the cross), provides vision
|
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|
Oculomotor nerve
|
3 controls muscles that move the eyeball lens and upper eyelid damage causes dilated pupil droopy eyelid difficulty focusing
|
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Trochlear nerve
|
4 eye movement superior oblique muscle damage causes double vision and inability to rotate
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Trigeminal nerve
|
5 mixed nerve, largest cranial nerve, most important sensory nerve of the face, three main branches
|
|
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Abducens nerve
|
6 lateral eye movement damage leads to double vision and difficulty focusing
|
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|
Facial nerve
|
7 mixed major motor nerve of facial muscles and taste on front 2/3 of tongue (sweet and salty ) damage causes no sense of taste and sagging facial muscles
|
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|
|
Vestibulocochlear nerve
|
8 hearing and balance damage produced deafness, dizziness, nausea, loss of balance
|
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|
Glossopharyngeal nerve
|
9 swallowing salivation, gagging, BP, respiration, sensation of back 1/3 of tongue (bitter and sour)
|
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Vagus nerve
|
10 most extensive nerve, major part of cardiac, pulmonary, digestive, urinary function, swallowing, speech, damage causes hoarseness, loss of voice, impaired swallowing
|
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Accessory nerve
|
11 swallowing, head, neck, and shoulder movement, damage causes impaired head neck shoulder movement, head turns toward injured side
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Hypoglossal nerve
|
12 tongue movements for speech food manipulation, swallowing
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