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246 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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John Calvin
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Justification by grace of God: who goes to heaven is predetermined
Geneva Theocracy: church and state together Geneva harbors foreigners, converts them to Calvinists |
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Martin Luther
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Justification by faith: you will go to heaven if you have faith in Jesus so you don't need to be righteous yourself
Finds out Tetzel is selling indulgences, puts 95 theses on church door Excommunicated Doesn't believe in transubstantiation Translates Bible (maybe changed meanings on purpose) |
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French Wars of Religion
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Sides: Valois (rulers trying to set up strong monarchy)/Guise (ultracatholic)/Bourbons (Huguenots)
Catholics feared Protestants because of their secret worship/supposed sexual deviants |
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St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
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Charles IX marries little sister to a Bourbon to symbolize peace
At the marriage, a high Protestant leader is beaten up by Guises Charles is pressured to kill Protestants (it is convenient, since they are all in one place) Rumor that all Catholics had permission to kill Protestants, Protestants decide all Catholics are murderers |
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English Civil War
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1640
Mainly about religion, but also about politics (king, king+parliament, or parliament?) Ends with Pride's Purge (Puritan Oliver Cromwell breaks from parliament and executes Charles I) |
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James I
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Anti-Catholic
Mixes Scottish way of ruling with British for the most benefits Liked war too much Fought a lot with parliament over money Upheld Anglican episcopy, many Puritans fled to America |
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Charles I
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Very conceited/confrontational
Had sneaky ways of taking money from people Must sign Petition of Right, but he doesn't follow the rules Disbands parliament for 11 years |
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Gunpowder Plot
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1605
Guy Faux plots to blow up parliament while king is inside Doesn't work, makes everyone think of Catholics as terrorists |
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Restoration
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English restore Charles II into power because Cromwell is a horrible leader (takes away everything not 100% relative to religion)
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James II
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Openly Catholic even though the British hate Catholics
When he had a son, England worried that his son would make England Catholic again, so they started the Glorious Revolution |
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Glorious Revolution
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1688
Strengthened Whigs (out of fear) Parliament asks Mary to overthrow her father She and William invade on Guy Faux Day then rule together Create Bill of Rights 1689 listing things the kings can't do (focusing on criminal laws) Act of Toleration: All Christian religions except Catholicism recognized and legalized |
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Whigs vs. Tories
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Whigs wanted to weaken power of king and strengthen power of parliament
Tories wanted a strong king |
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Scientific Revolution
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Before the revolution people believed that the truth is in the Bible, and if it's not mentioned in the Bible you can talk it out to come to the correct answer
After the revolution people attack unanswered questions, people must test theories themselves, world is seen as a machine (nothing is random) Change is possible because Arab books make it to Europe right as New World is discovered, which everyone wants to test/examine |
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Francis Bacon
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1561-1626
Inductive reasoning: take specific event and use it to find general concept Mind will lie so you must experiment Banish superstition No question is taboo |
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Rene Descartes
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1569-1650
Deductive reasoning: figure out general law then apply it to specifics All things can be explained with math (don't need to experiment because we know results) Severe doubt necessary in life |
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Thomas Hobbes
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State of nature is state of war/chaos
Only thing humans share is that we can all kill We use governments because we must yield rights (except right to live) for peace |
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John Locke
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State of nature is state of freedom
From time to time there are bad people who abuse this freedom We reluctantly enter government because of these people Humans have right to overthrow government if they take things from you |
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Enlightenment Themes
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Humanity can overcome ignorance and traditionalism
Universe is rational, not supernatural (humans are part of the universe, thus humans can be understood) Religion as an impediment to reason Human race can be educated and perfected Apply Scientific Revolution to humans (measure/observe) Idea of progress: world can only improve Corruption in the royal court and failed wars led people to think like this |
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Rousseau
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Believed in the general will of people
Wrote "The Social Contract" |
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Adam Smith
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For a nation to be healthy the government can't be involved
Economy will be rational on its own Universe is rational Wrote "Wealth of Nations" |
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Industrial Revolution
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Old system: people gave raw material to women in the countryside, then sells other products as he collects finished product, way to get around guilds
New system: take production from hand to machine, move labor to one place (factory), labor is simpler so more people can do it, more products=more consumers, goods become cheaper so it's easier to convince people to buy multiple of the same product How life changes: more goods, women become housewives/prostitutes because they are no longer part of the work, growth of middle class, less trade, rivalry between manager and laborer |
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Voltaire
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Critic
Hated how humanity worked Treated as celebrity Wrote "Candide" |
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Beccaria
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Believed punishments should be about why the person did what they did instead of revenge
Punishments should better society Human race could be improved Wrote "On Crimes and Punishments" |
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Gibbon
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Blames Christianity for the fall of Rome
Believes religion is an impediment Wrote "The Fall of Rome" |
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Spinoza
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Believed man created religion Religions should be questioned
Humanity can overcome traditionalism Wrote "Ethics" |
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Montesquieu
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French lawyer
Thought no set of laws can apply to all people at all times Applies method of Scientific Revolution to humans Wrote "Spirit of the Laws" |
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Diderot
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Humanity can be improved and overcome ignorance
Wrote "Encyclopedia" Uses brief statements so lots of people can understand |
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French Revolution
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Seen as four revolutions: Aristocrats want a parliament, bourgeoisie want power, sans culotte want rights, peasants want change (although eventually realize they liked the old way better)
Seen as millions of individual revolutions: religion vs. personal gain (not everyone makes the same choice) |
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Parliaments
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Courts with two functions: hear trials, print laws sent by king (power of appeal)
Louis XVI abolishes parliaments, people freak out so he calls Estates General Third Estate becomes "National Assembly" |
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Tennis Court Oath
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1789
Louis XVI locks third estate out of meeting, so they go to a tennis court and take an oath not to leave until they develop a new constitution |
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Storming the Bastille
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Revolutionaries must arm themselves against Louis XVI's army
Break into Bastille to get weaponry, only find seven prisoners Tear down the building brick by brick-very symbollic Urban mob becomes "national guard" |
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Girondins
Jacobins Montagnes |
Girondins wanted moderate change in France (reduce power of king, federalism=split local/national government, equal taxes)
Jacobins wanted a republic with no king, use violence of sans culottes Montanges are a more radical subset of Jacobins, they are behind the reign of terror |
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Women's March
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Lots of women took cannons to Versailles to force the king and the national assembly (third estate) to come back to the city
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Robespierre
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Dictated that French were not finding traitors fast enough
Law of Suspects (couldn't defend yourself, etc.) People would accuse traitors Robespierre pushes it too far, people finally revolt and arrest/kill him |
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Declaration of Pillnitz
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1791
What happens in France affects all of Europe France declares war on Austria because Louis XVI thinks he will gain popularity |
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Duke of Brunswick Manifesto
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France feared Louis XVI was a traitor
Austria told France not to touch their king, convinces people they are working together National convention: government and body writing constitution at the same time, wanted to find ALL traitors |
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Louis XVI
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Slow witted, wife=Marie Antoinette, bad finances in France
Flight to Varennes: flees because no one likes him, but he is marched back by the mob, must sign the new constitution to redeem himself Louis originally says he supports the revolution, but when he is tried as a traitor he tells everyone he is against the revolution He is executed |
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Fructidor Coup
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1797
Directory (corrupt government form) overthrows election results and puts themselves back in power Unstable government |
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Napoleon
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In 1789 Europe had turned against France, France decided to send armies in all directions (Napoleon led army to Italy)
Wins through amazing use of artillery, becomes an overnight hero Constantly won plebiscites (asking people a yes or no question like "do you want me to be emperor?") Concordat: 1801 Napoleon legalizes Catholicism Code Napoleon: harsher punishment for harsher crimes Begins to look weak after losing in Russia |
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Brumaire Coup
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Abbe Sieyes decides government is corrupt, and talks Napoleon into staging a coup
Napoleon declares everyone under arrest |
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Congress of Vienna
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Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia, France
It was during 100 days, so France was extra embarrassed Ends with Concert of Europe |
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Concert of Europe
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Quadruple alliance with Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England to not war for 20 years
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Liberalism
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Power comes from people
Limited government, constitutional governments Religious toleration Right to speech, freedom of the press Free trade |
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Conservatism
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Legitimacy defines power because that brings order
Government can intervene whenever necessary to create order Religion should be that of the ruler No individual rights, government can do anything Government has role in economy |
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Nationalism
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Pride in your country
People who have the same historical background should be a nation (like France, not America) |
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Communism
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All history is the history of class struggles
Bourgeoisie need to invent better ways to make things and find new markets to survive, eventually these things aren't possible anymore When we make everything in terms of money, people aren't proud of what they've made |
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Romanticism (in art)
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Even though the scene looks real, it is turned into something it isn't so you will be stirred and feel passionate about it
Supposed to feel emotion that those in the painting would have felt |
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Worker Movements
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Proletarianization: workers lost ownership of means of production as factories spread
Luddites: current/former artisans broke into factories and destroyed machines Demographic changes: overpopulation increases especially in cities, lack of cleanliness Family changes: separated familes who used to work together at home, English Family Act was created so parents/children could spend more time together (restrictions on child labor) |
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Socialists
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Saint-Simon: factories should be run by most intelligent people (technocracy)
Owen: enlightened, make environment of work better then workers will be happier (more profit), government is necessary in making this happen Fourier: Romantic, humans have special characteristics, ideal society had one person from each type, open sexuality Louis Blanc: practical thinker, ideal universe isn't possible, we should make democracy of political groups that slowly make changes for the better Hegel: Dialectic, history is rational, believes in predestination |
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Marx
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Bourgeoisie need industrial process to have money
People only accept cheap labor if they are competing for the job As one product comes out on top, workers will come together and no longer need to compete Capital will fall and bourgeoisie will lose power Political power will fade |
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June Days
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1848
Workers in Paris started to riot when they found out their jobs were disappearing Army attacked them (shows how people had turned against radical movement) Agree that old way isn't working, but can't figure out a new way |
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Louis Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, gets support by ensuring conservatives he will protect the church and ensuring liberals he would protect free trade and using nationalism on the lower class
Coup of 1851: tries to get another term, succeeds and becomes emperor |
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Austrian Revolution 1848
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Revolution at home and in the empire
People in Vienna want a constitution Franz Joseph brought to throne |
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Hungarian Revolution 1848
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When Vienna has their revolution Hungary takes opportunity to rebel because they want their own country
Kossuth leads revolt Austrians receive help from massive Russian army, Hungarian uprising fails To avoid future problems, Franz Joseph freed all serfs, builds railroads, gives freedom of speech, and ends spy system |
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German Revolution 1848
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Representatives sent to Frankfurt Assembly to found a Germany with a constitution
Austria not included in new Germany |
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Papal States Revolution 1848
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Giuseppe Mazzini sparks a revolution against the pope
Pope flees, 1849 Roman Republic is declared French army comes to Rome to end the republic and protect pope, stay for seventy years |
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Patriotism
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Loyalty to one's country regardless of its actions
Positive: parades, buying government bonds, writing to newspapers Negative: fighting people who fight America |
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Nietzsche
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Irrational vs. Rational: part of you is animalistic, people strive to do things because they want to be famous, celebrate irrational part, morality is defined by us, uberman=ideal man (someone who can see through false morality)
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Freud
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Rationalism and materialism play a part in the mind and are both important
Can't suppress urges and be healthy Id, ego, super ego |
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Einstein
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Attacking Newtonian physics
Theory of Relativity: Implication on reality, must use fourth dimension when describing everything, people never experience the same thing at the same time Proved edge to universe |
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Cult of Domesticity
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Men's wealth creates a situation where women do housework
Good middle class person if you have 1-4 servants Blush of burning shame if woman takes care of herself before her family The only women who complain about this are the women who are inadequate at home |
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French Commune
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People of Paris infuriated by the Treaty of Frankfurt
Commune is a municipal government Long term goal: create Paris as a separate commune from France |
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Third French Republic
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Backs into a republic because they couldn't agree on a king, even though they all wanted a monarchy
Two houses: chamber of deputies and senate There is also a president |
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Dreyfus Affair
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French soldier named Dreyfus accused of being a traitor
Later revealed that he was falsely accused due to antisemitism |
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Ausgleich
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1867
Austria Agreement that established a dual monarchy, increased tensions for minority ethnicities |
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World War I
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Causes: new Germany/Italy, crumbling Ottoman Empire, weapons build up, general staff (everything predetermined), social darwinism, imperial rivalries
Alliances: Triple Entente-Britain France Austria; Triple Alliance-Germany Russia Italy |
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Geulf vs. Ghibeline Struggle
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In Italy
Guelfs were anti-imperial and pro-papal, Ghibelines were the opposite Century long debate, distracted emperor from dealing with the growth of the Italian cities and strong merchant oligarchies. |
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Tudor Kings
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In England
Henry Tudor (Henry VII) restored peace and order while consolidating his power over his subjects without extra money from parliament In his policies, such as the creation of Star Chamber Courts, which were courts under his control and largely used to punish nobles for challenging his authority, Henry developed a tradition of absolutism This was a return to monarchial control after the War of the Roses that marked a period of uncertainty and instability in England |
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100 Years War
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1337–1453
French advantages: France was larger than England in population, France was richer than England in natural resources, The War was largely fought on French land, France was larger in territorial size French disadvantage: France was less politically united than England Serious internal problems broke out in France during the war Such internal trouble served to weaken initially the French, who made a surprising rally of strength in the last phase of the war. |
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Renaissance Origin
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Florence
Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Michelangelo, and Guiccardini came from here Florence became a textile manufacturing, banking, and commercial center of wealth during the Renaissance period |
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Desiderius Erasmus
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Known as "Prince of Northern Humanists"
Exemplified the great interest of Renaissance humanists in classical literature and Christianity Satirized abuses in the Church His work is said to have laid the foundation for Luther’s work. |
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Anabaptist Movement
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Anabaptists met considerable opposition to their rejection of infant baptism, as they claimed that baptism must be performed on consenting adults for the sake of recognizing human freedom to choose religion
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Protestants vs. Catholics
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Protestantism is largely associated with increasing the power of the individual adherent to read and internalize biblical teachings. For example, the Lutheran themes of “salvation by faith alone” as well as “priesthood of all believers” empower the lay people with a sense of spiritual authority not granted in the Catholic Church
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How did the Protestant Revolt in England differ from other revolts?
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It embraced by the sovereigns as a means to enhance their own absolute rule over their subject
The Protestant Revolt in England was more of an important means for the Tudor sovereigns in reaching absolute rule in England. Anglicanism represented an important break from the Roman hierarchy that weakened the monarch’s power. |
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Joint-Stock Company Model
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The joint-stock company was formed by selling shares to people who either took a direct role in the company or to those who simply invested their money and profited from dividends. These companies were able to raise large amounts of money and were relatively stable
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Most immediate factor in the beginning of the 30 Years' War
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Defenestration of Prague
When the Bohemians rejected Ferdinand II as their king because they feared his potential to violate their religious beliefs and constitutional rights, this threatened the Catholic delegation’s control of the electorship process for the Holy Roman Emperor, as it would have given the Protestant forces seven imperial electorates, which might have led to a Protestant emperor |
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Mercantilism
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Economic system that came to supplant the largely agrarian economy of the Middle Ages
Grew in predominance during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in correlation with the growth of the absolute rule model. It strove to reduce or eliminate the practice and need of exporting valuable metals in trade with other States |
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Gallicanism
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French movement toward an independent French Church that was more distinct from Rome
Gallicanism rose in prevalence under Louis XIV, especially over the issue of the extension of the king’s right to obtain money from vacant bishoprics. When Louis extended this right to the whole kingdom, Pope Innocent XI was angered. Not willing to rule over a divided Church, Louis abandoned Gallicanism in return for the right to obtain these monies |
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Peace of Utrecht
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Signaled the end of the wars of Louis XIV
After a long line of aggressive foreign policy, Utrecht signaled the end to Louis XIV’s wars, which allowed him to see his grandson, Philip of Anjou, occupy the Spanish throne. This freed the Valois house from being threatened by the Hapsburgs. Throughout the eighteenth century, Spain would remain a near satellite of France |
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Mercantilism
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Economic system that came to supplant the largely agrarian economy of the Middle Ages
Grew in predominance during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in correlation with the growth of the absolute rule model. It strove to reduce or eliminate the practice and need of exporting valuable metals in trade with other States |
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Physiocrats
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In France
Physiocrats were the leading economists in the Enlightenment. Francois Quesnay called for the adoption of a single land tax to provide governmental revenue. Their main saying became “laisse faire, laisse passer,” which means “let things alone, let them take their natural course.” Physiocrats directly opposed mercantilism |
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Napoleon's Concordat of 1801
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The Concordat of 1801 was Napoleon’s effort to unify the French around his Catholic religion for political purposes. He knew that a political alliance with the Pope was necessary to his growth in power. In exchange for Napoleon’s support of the Church, the Pope agreed to cede the lands seized during the revolution. It gave Napoleon the power to nominate bishops and it asserted the supremacy of the State over the Church
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British Council of 1806
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Set of laws
Set up a paper blockade around the Continent and required all neutral countries to stop in English ports before approaching the European continent Direct response to Napoleon’s Milan decrees, (part of Napoleon’s Continental System that declared that any ship stopping in English-controlled ports was liable to be captured by the French) |
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European Population Growth in Late 19th Century
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Populations throughout Europe generally expanded at a strong rate
While there was a major crop failure beginning in 1848, populations throughout Europe had been doubling in several areas. Poorer nations had especially widespread immigration, but their populations were still large. The nineteenth century certainly had its share of revolts, but there were no major European wars |
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Zollverein
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Germanic economic organization allowing free trade among its member states
Formed in 1834, the German states perceived the wisdom of cooperation in order to compete against Britain and the United States |
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Ottoman Janissary Forces
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Against any kind of reforms, which they considered a threat to their power
The Janissaries were violently opposed to any modernization efforts, which they correctly assumed would undermine their power. They were willing to oppose their sultans and were very brutal to Christian forces, especially in Serbia. The Janissaries were finally dissolved in 1826 |
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Boxer Rebellion
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Occurred in 1900 in China
Saw numerous attacks on foreigners The West and newly modernized Japan intervened to stop the violence |
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Immanuel Kant
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Kant, who lived from 1724–1804, wrote about perception via categories and the nature of universal law
Idea that individuals needed to find moral guidance and laws within themselves |
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Gallicanism
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French movement toward an independent French Church that was more distinct from Rome
Gallicanism rose in prevalence under Louis XIV, especially over the issue of the extension of the king’s right to obtain money from vacant bishoprics. When Louis extended this right to the whole kingdom, Pope Innocent XI was angered. Not willing to rule over a divided Church, Louis abandoned Gallicanism in return for the right to obtain these monies |
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Peace of Utrecht
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Signaled the end of the wars of Louis XIV
After a long line of aggressive foreign policy, Utrecht signaled the end to Louis XIV’s wars, which allowed him to see his grandson, Philip of Anjou, occupy the Spanish throne. This freed the Valois house from being threatened by the Hapsburgs. Throughout the eighteenth century, Spain would remain a near satellite of France |
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Physiocrats
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In France
Physiocrats were the leading economists in the Enlightenment. Francois Quesnay called for the adoption of a single land tax to provide governmental revenue. Their main saying became “laisse faire, laisse passer,” which means “let things alone, let them take their natural course.” Physiocrats directly opposed mercantilism |
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Napoleon's Concordat of 1801
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The Concordat of 1801 was Napoleon’s effort to unify the French around his Catholic religion for political purposes. He knew that a political alliance with the Pope was necessary to his growth in power. In exchange for Napoleon’s support of the Church, the Pope agreed to cede the lands seized during the revolution. It gave Napoleon the power to nominate bishops and it asserted the supremacy of the State over the Church
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British Council of 1806
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Orders: This set of laws set up a paper blockade around the Continent and required all neutral countries to stop in English ports before approaching the European continent. These requirements were pronounced by the British in direct response to Napoleon’s Milan decrees, (part of Napoleon’s Continental System that declared that any ship stopping in English-controlled ports was liable to be captured by the French)
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European Population Growth in Late 19th Century
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Populations throughout Europe generally expanded at a strong rate
While there was a major crop failure beginning in 1848, populations throughout Europe had been doubling in several areas. Poorer nations had especially widespread immigration, but their populations were still large. The nineteenth century certainly had its share of revolts, but there were no major European wars |
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Zollverein
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Germanic economic organization allowing free trade among its member states
Formed in 1834, the German states perceived the wisdom of cooperation in order to compete against Britain and the United States |
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Ottoman Janissary Forces
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Against any kind of reforms, which they considered a threat to their power
The Janissaries were violently opposed to any modernization efforts, which they correctly assumed would undermine their power. They were willing to oppose their sultans and were very brutal to Christian forces, especially in Serbia. The Janissaries were finally dissolved in 1826 |
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Boxer Rebellion
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Occurred in 1900 in China
Saw numerous attacks on foreigners The West and newly modernized Japan intervened to stop the violence |
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Immanuel Kant
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Kant, who lived from 1724–1804, wrote about perception via categories and the nature of universal law
Idea that individuals needed to find moral guidance and laws within themselves |
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Battle of Tannenberg
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Hindenburg led the 1914 battle, and the Russian forces were soundly defeated
Russian losses would lead later in the war to domestic unrest, and Italy did eventually join the Allies, but not at this time |
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Atlantic Charter
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An agreement between the United States and Britain that the United States would assist Britain and help restore world order at the war’s end
The 1941 meeting held off the coast of Newfoundland was not a formal treaty (this would need congressional approval) Both America and Britain had previously provided public assistance to the USSR The United States had already stopped trade with Axis nations |
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Humanism
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Scholarly interest in the study of classical texts, values, and styles of Greece/Rome
Contributed to promotion of liberal arts education |
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Vernacular
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Everyday language of a region or country
Cervantes, Chaucer, Dante, and Luther encouraged writing in vernacular Erasmus preferred Latin |
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Taille
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Direct tax on French peasantry
Most important source of income for French monarchs until French Revolution |
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Columbian Exchange
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Interchange of plants, animals, diseases, and populations between the Old and New Worlds
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Mercantilism
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Close government regulation of the economy
Emphasized building a strong, self-sufficient economy by maximizing exports/limiting imports |
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Putting-Out System
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Pre-industrial manufacturing system in which an entrepreneur brought raw materials to rural people who worked in their own homes on their own schedules
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Absolutism
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System of government in which the ruler claims sole power
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Intendants
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Royal French officials who supervised provincial governments in the name of the king
Played a key role in establishing French absolutism |
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Fronde
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Series of rebellions against royal authority in France in 17th century
Played a key role in Louis XIV's decision to build the Versailles Palace |
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Robot
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System of forced labor used in Eastern Europe
Abolished in 1848 |
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Junkers
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Prussia's landowning nobility
Supported monarchy and served in army in exchange for absolute power over their serfs |
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Invisible Hand
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Phrase Adam Smith used to refer to a free marketplace
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Thermidorian Reaction
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Reaction against the radicalism of the French Revolution
Associated with the end of the Reign of Terror and reassertion of bourgeoisie power in the Directory |
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Carbonari
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Secret revolutionary society working to unify Italy in the 1820s
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Duma
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Russian parliament created after the 1905 revolution
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Fourteen Points
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President Woodrow Wilson's idealistic peace aims
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Existentialism
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Philosophy that God and reason are myths, humans must accept responsibility for their own actions
Reflects sense of isolation and anguish in the 20th century |
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Kulaks
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Prosperous landowning peasants in czarist Russia
Stalin accused them of being class enemies of the poorer peasants, then executed them |
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Rise of Italian City-States in the Italian Renaissance
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Although a lot of Europe was still rural, Italian cities began to prosper
By the late 1300s, Florence, Venice, and Milan had high populations Wealthy merchants formed oligarchies to govern city-states in the absence of kings |
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Medici
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The Medici family dominated Florence's economic, political, and artistic life for most of the fifteenth century
Earned their wealth as bankers |
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Medieval vs. Renaissance
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Medieval thinkers believed God created the world to prepare humans for salvation/eternal damnation, and worked for God instead of personal glory
Renaissance thinkers worked for fame, were interested in individual personality |
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Oration on the Dignity of Man
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Written by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
Celebrated human potential for greatness (Part of Renaissance) |
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Baldassare Castiglione
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1478-1529
Book: The Courtier, explains how upper-class men/women could become accomplished courtiers Ideal courtier should be polite, charming and witty. Should also be physically graceful/strong Ideal individual strove to become a universal man excelling in many fields |
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Niccolo Machiavelli
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1469-1527
Florentine diplomat/political philosopher. Considered founder of modern political science Appalled by devastation of Hapsburg/Valois wars Wrote "The Prince" to advise Italian rulers on the ruthless statecraft needed to unite his war-torn and divided Italian homeland |
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Women during the Renaissance
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Beginning of Renaissance coincided with a "debate about women"
Humanist scholars debated women's character and role in society |
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Christine de Pizan
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First feminist
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Laissez-Faire
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Component of classical Liberalism
Refers to capitalism Ties to Adam Smith Economies work best when government leaves them alone |
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Italian humanists vs. Northern Humanists
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Both studied classical texts, but Northern humanists were more concerned with religious piety and early Christian texts
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Desiderius Erasmus
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1466-1536
"Prince of Humanists" Wrote: Praise of Folly, satire about greedy merchants Wrote in Latin, not vernacular |
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Thomas More
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1478-1535
Leading humanist scholar in England Wrote "Utopia" |
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Michel de Montaigne
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1533-1592
One of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance Best known for popularizing the essay Skeptical tone |
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Medieval Monarchs vs. Renaissance Monarchs
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Medieval kings received most income from their estates, marched to war followed by an army of vassals, relied upon nobles for advice, shared power with church
Renaissance kings taxed towns/merchants/peasants, created professional armies, and negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic church |
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Charles VII
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French
Reigned 1422-1461 Concluded Hundred Years' War by expelling the English from France Strengthened royal finances through land and salt taxes Created first permanent royal army |
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Louis XI
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Reigned 1461-1483
Further enlarged Charles VII's royal army Encouraged economic growth with industries such as silk weaving |
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Francis I
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French
Reigned 1515-1547 Concordat of Bologna: agreement with Pope Leo X authorizing the king to nominate bishops (gave monarchs control over the church) |
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German Peasants' War
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1525
German peasants originally supported Luther, believed he would support them in their rebellion (rebelling because nobles had seized village common lands) Luther didn't support them because he didn't want a bloody revolution Strengthened German nobility |
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Catholic Reformation Popes
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Renaissance popes like Julius II concentrated on enhancing power of their own families
Reformation popes concentrated on enforcing strict moral standards and creating new religious orders |
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Council of Trent
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Reaffirmed Catholic doctrines
Rejected Luther's doctrine of Justification by faith Rejected Protestant belief in supremacy of Bible Reformed church abuses Resisted limiting papal authority (papacy seen as center of Catholic unity) |
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Jesuits
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Members of Society of Jesus
Led by Ignatius (Spanish soldier who experienced a religious conversion while recovering from an injury) Ignatius wrote 'Spiritual Exercises" (system of meditation/prayer) Founded hundreds of schools Preached Christianity to Americas/Asia Combated Protestantism |
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Baroque Art
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Focuses on dramatic moments
Uses light/dark (tenebrism) Portrayal of everyday people who are not idealized Buildings feature many decorations Key examples: Bernini's "Baldachino," Caravaggio's "The Calling of Saint Matthew," Gentileschi's Judith Slaying Holofernes |
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Philip II of Spain
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Came to power in Spain, Milan, Naples, the Netherlands, and the Americas after his father Charles V abdicated his thrones
Goals: advance Spanish power, promote Catholicism, defeat Ottoman Turks Prestige enhanced after glorious win at Battle of Lepanto 1571 Consequences of his defeats (Netherlands united against harsh ways and British ships defeated the Spanish Armada): long period of political/economical decline, independent Dutch began an age of commercial prosperity and artistic creativity, British power increased as Spanish power decreased (British were able to colonize North America) |
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Thirty Years' War
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1618-1648
Protestant Union vs. Catholic League Causes: religious divisions, political divisions, international interference (France didn't want a strong power in Germany so it allied with Protestant princes though the king was Catholic) Long-term effects: devastated German economy and population, France emerges as strongest power in Europe |
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Peace of Westphalia
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1648
Ended 30 Years' War Hundreds of diplomats representing Germany, France, Sweden, Spain, the Dutch, and the pope (whose additions were somewhat ignored, showing secularization of Europe) Rulers allowed to decide the religious faith in their territory, Calvinism recognized Swiss/French received land Dutch Republic and Switzerland recognized |
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Commercial Revolution
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Causes: new ocean trade routes, growth of population, price revolution (due to gold and silver from the new world)
New entrepreneurs: guild replaced, merchants and bankers emerged (examples-Italian Medici family and German Fuggers) New Industries: books, ships, cannons/muskets Consequences: Rise of capitalism/bourgeoisie |
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Edict of Nantes
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1598, granted religious toleration to French Huguenots and established Henry IV as ruler
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Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu
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Louis XIII came to power when he was nine, so Cardinal Richelieu ruled for him
Cardinal Richelieu-politique Limited Hapsburg power Weakened nobility |
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Oliver Cromwell
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Led roundheads to defeat Cavaliers in English Civil War
New Model Army-zealous Protestants Executed King Charles I |
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The Fronde
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Deaths of Richelieu and Louis XIII in 1640s left monarchy to Louis XIV (5 years old) and Cardinal Mazarin
Fronde-rebellions to limit royal authority Forced the humiliated Louis XIV to flee Paris |
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Louis XIV
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Did not share power with parliament
"I am the state" Versailles Palace: public image, symbol of his absolute power/greatness Religious intolerance-revoked Edict of Nantes and lost many skilled Huguenots |
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Declining Eastern European Empires in 17th Century
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Holy Roman Empire: Reformation left it religiously divided, 30 Years' War left it politically divided, elected emperor had no authority
Republic of Poland: King restricted by nobles, very vulnerable Ottoman Empire: Austrian forces defeated Turks, beginning of a steady decline in Ottoman power |
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Charles VI
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1711-1740
Pragmatic Sanction: Designed to provide a safe throne for his daughter, said she would inherit all Hapsburg lands Foreign powers required many concessions from Charles VI before agreeing to this |
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1715-1740
1740-1763 1763-1789 |
Peace/Prosperity
Warfare Enlightened Despotism |
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Frederick William The Great
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1640-1688
Forged territories in Holy Roman Empire into a strong power Demanded and received loyalty of Junkers, in exchange he gave them full power over their serfs |
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Frederick William I
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1713-1740
Prussian Determined to build a powerful army Military dominated all parts of the state |
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Peter The Great
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1789-1825
Modernized Russia: expanded army/navy, improved agriculture, liberated Russian women Defeated Sweden: 30 Years' War left Sweden in control of the Baltic's eastern shore, Great Northern War ended this dominance (Peter won control of Baltic) Exploited serfs |
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Characteristics of the 18th century
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Political: monarchy most common form of government, aristocrats regained influence
International: Great powers (Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) fought limited wars |
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Louis XV
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1715-1774
Weak leader who let nobles regain power they had lost during Louis XIV Government debts mounted |
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Seven Years' War
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1756-1763
Colonial War: British gained control of Quebec, French sugar islands, and Indian trading posts War on Continent: Anti-Prussian alliance achieved series of victories, but Prussia was saved when new tsar Peter III dropped out |
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Treaty of Paris
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1763
Ended 7 Years' War British acquired French Canada and land between Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi River French retained sugar islands and a few installations in India Prussia retained possession of Silesia |
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Enlightened Despotism
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Philosophes urged rulers to use their power for the good of the people
Combat ignorance/superstition Religious toleration, reformed legal codes, education support Did not support democracy (like Hobbes, thought people couldn't be trusted with self-government) |
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Catherine the Great
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1762-1796
Supported printing press, restricted practice of torture, allowed limited religious toleration to Jews Pugachev's Rebellion scared Catherine into ending her enlightened reforms Gave nobles power over serfs Accomplish some territorial expansion |
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Frederick the Great
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1740-1786
Enlightened Reforms: supported scientific agriculture, prepared unified code of law, abolished use of torture, encouraged Huguenots to immigrate to Prussia Strengthened Junker's privileges |
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Joseph II
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1780-1790
Abolished serfdom and feudal dues Abolished robot Religious toleration for all Christians/Jews Reduced influence of the church Abolished torture/death penalty Nobles opposed these reforms |
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Life in the 18th Century
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Arranged marriages declined
Parents encouraged become emotionally attached to children, which they hadn't done before because of high mortality rates Life expectancy increased (new foods and better sanitation) |
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Witchcraft
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16th/17th centuries
Elderly, widowed women were most likely to be accused Women were believed to be weak and susceptible to the Devil's temptations Religious wars caused stress, older women lacked power and were therefore good scapegoats Decline of witchcraft: religious wars ended, Protestants emphasized supreme God (devil not as threatening), because of Enlightenment people realized this wasn't rational |
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Reforms of the National Assembly
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Created a constitutional monarchy
Divided France into 83 departments governed by elected officials Established metric system of measurement Abolished guilds DIDN'T abolish private property or give women the right to vote |
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Decembrist Revolt
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Russia
Tsar Alexander I died in 1825, and a group rebelled for constitutional reform Nicholas I suppressed the Decembrists |
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French Revolution of 1830
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1824 Charles X leading, opposes republicanism, liberalism, and constitutionalism, which infuriated his opponents
Three days of rioting ensued and the bourgeoisie prevailed Louis Philippe became new king. |
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Napoleon III
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1852-1870
Elected new president of Second French Republic Proclaimed himself emperor, people didn't argue Economic policies: increased railroad mileage, helped working class, doubled exports with moderate free trade, enriched the middle class Redesigned Paris (harder for rioters to blackade streets) |
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Crimean War
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1853-1856
Causes: Tsar Nicholas I saw an opportunity to dominate Turkey, Austria felt threatened by Russian expansion, France/Britain opposed change in regional balance of power War: France/Britain/Turkey captured Russian fortress, disease was cause of most deaths Consequences: First great power conflict since Congress of Vienna, Napoleon III broke Austria/Russia alliance, Russia's humiliating defeat caused many reforms |
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Tsarist Russia
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Tsar Alexander II was an autocrat whose will was the law
Autocracy owned all land/was exempt from taxes (small middle class) Alexander's reforms: freed serfs, zemstvos (assemblies to elect local self governments) |
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Second Industrial Revolution
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New Industries: steel production/ chemicals
New sources of power: electricity/oil/gasoline New communication/transportation: telephone and gas powered cars New industrial powers: Germany and United States (posed challenge to Great Britain who had always been ahead) |
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Population Growth/Urbanization
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Improved agriculture tripled population in 100 years
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Women's Rights
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Struggle for rights: divorce legalized in Britain/France, no suffrage even in 1900s
The "New Woman": end of nineteenth century-women enjoyed more independence |
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Age of Progress
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Discovered bacteria/medicines
Scientists: Pasteur, Koch, Lister Theory of evolution Social Darwinism |
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Belgium Revolution of 1830
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French revolution sparked discontent
Congress of Vienna united Austrian Netherlands with Holland to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands, but they had very little in common so the riots turned into a demand for independence |
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Italian Nationalism Revolution of 1830
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Austria dominated northern Italy
Secret society: Carbonari, hoped to drive out Austrians Metternich sent in Austrian troops to restore order Failure of Carbonaris left Giuseppe Mazzini as Italy's foremost national leader |
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Imperialism
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Old way: trading post empires built along coasts of Africa, India, and Indonesia
New Way: begins in 1870, European nations increased political/economic control of Africa and Asia Motives: searching for new sources of materials, sought power, Social Darwinism, religious missions Consequences: damaged native cultures, global economy, intensified European rivalries |
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Schlieffen Plan
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Germany had to fight France and Russia at same time (both borders)
To prevent two-front war, Schlieffen drew a plan to attack France out of the war (this involved invading neutral Belgium, which upset Britain) Plan failed |
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Lenin & Bolshevik Revolution
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1917 urged followers to overthrow provisional government replacing the tsar in Russia
"Peace land and bread" gave him a lot of support Established new Bolshevik government |
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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
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Lenin realized he must end war with Germany for Bolshevik regime to survive
1918 Treaty made Russia lose a quarter of its territory and a third of its population Russia later repudiated the treaty and it was declared void by the Allies |
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Paris Peace Conference
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Great Britain, France, and United States made major decisions
Germany and Austria not allowed Russia wasn't invited Exclusion caused bitterness-possible cause of WWII? |
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Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
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Idealistic proposals like freedom of the seas and returning land to France
Undermined by secret treaties and desire to punish Germany |
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Uncertanties in the Intellectual Crisis after WWI
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Disillusionment, uncertainty, and anxiety
Doubted individual ability to control life Affected every field of thought |
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Existentialism
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Reason and science are incapable of providing insight into the human situation
God, reason, and progress are myths Humans live in a hostile world, isolated Key thinkers: Satre and Camus |
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Bauhaus Architecture
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Practical
Relies on clear, straight lines No unnecessary decorations Originated in Germany, spread to United States (known as "International Style") |
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Weimar Republic
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New republic after WWI
Staggering reparations payments Printed vast amounts of paper money to support itself |
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Dawes Plan
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End of 1923 experts led by Dawes devised a plan to reestablish German currency and reduce reparations payments
Series of American loans to Germany Ended inflationary spiral |
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Locarno Pact
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France, Germany, Italy, England, and Belgium signed pact to guarantee borders between Germany/France
Turning point in Franco-German relations, more peaceful |
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Kellogg-Briand Pact
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1928
62 countries promised to renounce war as an instrument of national policy Provided spirit of optimism |
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Great Depression
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Causes: overproduced goods, not enough money to purchase goods, overproduced agriculture. Problems in America reverberated around the Western World
Impact: replaced optimism with doubt and fear, unemployment, increased government intervention in economy, opportunities for dictators to exploit fears |
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Conservative Authoritarianism
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Committed to the existing social order
Opposed to popular participation in government Revived in eastern Europe, Spain, and Portugal |
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Lenin
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Unrest and famine in Russia after civil war, Lenin launched NEP in 1921
Allowed temporary capitalism/free trade Successfully revived economy by 1928 |
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Stalin vs. Trotsky
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Power struggle after Lenin's death-1924
Trotsky believed Russia should support Communist revolutions around the world Stalin worked quietly, behind the scenes. Thought Russia should perfect communism before spreading it Stalin cunningly expelled Trotsky and was leader by 1927 |
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Great Terror
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1934-1938
Stalin purged anyone who threatened his power Justified by claiming Trotsky was organizing a plot against Russia New Communist Party |
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Mussolini/Fascism
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After march on Rome, Mussolini emerges as prime minister of Italy
Organizes a fascist state (lots of propaganda for him and fascism) |
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Lateran Accord
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Mussolini negotiated an end to the long dispute between the papacy and state
Pius XII recognized legitimacy of Italian state, in return, Mussolini recognized Vatican city as an independent state ruled by the pope |
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Hitler
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Weimar Republic failed, Hitler rose to power because the people wwanted their pride restored
Nazi Program: Nationalism, Master race, anti-semitism, anticommunism, fuhrer (absolute leader who would embody the national will) |
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Spanish Civil War
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Nationalist forces led by Franco rebelled against the republic in favor of fascism
1936 Became an international affair-Hitler/Mussolini sent men to support Nationalists and Russia sent men to support the Republic Republic fell in 1939 and Franco established an authoritarian regime that remained in power until his death in 1975 |
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Munich Conference
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1938 Hitler annexed Austria into Germany, then tried to annex Czechoslovakia
Emergency conference to negotiate demand for Czechoslovakia Turning point-Hitler was appeased and made plans to attack Poland Symbol of surrender |
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World War II
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Outbreak: 1939 Germany attacked Poland, two days later Great Britain and France declared war on Germany
Blitzkreig ("lightning war") combined fast-moving armor and air power |
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Truman Doctrine/Containment
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Wanted to block Soviet expansion into Greece/Turkey
Truman justified $400 million economic aid to prevent expansion by declaring that the United States would support free people resisting attempted subjugation Containment: policy set up to stop expansion |
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Marshall Plan
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Program of economic aid designed to promote recovery of war-torn Europe while also preventing the spread of Soviet Influence
Part of Truman's containment increased American influence in Western/Southern Europe |
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NATO Alliance
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10 Western European nations joined with America to form North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Coordinated defense preparations among the nations of Western Europe Break from America's isolation |
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Warsaw Pact
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Soviet Union's response to NATO
Linked to seven Eastern European countries |
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Berlin Airlift
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1945 Allies divided Germany into four zones for US, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union
Soviet Union cut off Western land access to West Berlin (feared resurgent Germany)-provoked Cold War Truman ordered airlift of food, fuel, and supplies to the citizens of West Berlin Successful test of containment Shortly following the Airlift, West and East Germany were established |
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EEC
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European Economic Community (Common Market)
Eliminated trade barriers among members Driving force behind economic integration in Western Europe |
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ECSC
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European Coal and Steel Company
Created by the Schuman Plan Tax-free trade in coal/steel among France, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, and the Netherlands |
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Treaty of Rome
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Created EEC
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Treaty of Maastricht
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Transformed EEC into the European Union
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Charles de Gaulle
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1890-1970
Established 5th Republic of France in 1958 Served as president until 1969 Foreign policy decisions: granted Algeria independence, withdrew French military forces from NATO, opposed Great Britain's entrance into the EEC |
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Khrushchev
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1956-1964
After Stalin's death, 1952 Khrushchev emerged as the unrivaled leader Attacked Stalin in a "secret speech" at 20th Communist Party Congress (denounced reign of terror and repudiated his "cult of personality") |
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De-Stalinization
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Shifted some resources towards producing more consumer goods
Curbed power of the secret police Granted more freedom to intellectuals |
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Sputnik
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1957 Khrushchev announced that Soviet Union had launched a 184-pound satellite into orbit around the earth
Symbol of Soviet technological progress Contributed to Space Race between Soviet Union/United States |
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Berlin Wall
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Khrushchev helped East Germans build a wall in 1961 to form a border between East/West Germany
Symbol of Communist oppression |
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Cuban Missile Crisis
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Khrushchev constructed nuclear missiles in Cuba
Agreed to withdraw missiles in return for US not attacking Fidel Castro Undermined Khrushchev's credibility |
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Brezhnev
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1964-1982
Prolonged period of political repression and economic stagnation Brezhnev Doctrine: Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia to remove communist reform leader Dubcek from power, Doctrine is the justification of the invasion (Soviet Union had the right to intervene in other communist countries) |
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Detente
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Nixon initiated policy of detente to reduce tensions with the Soviet Union
Agreed to limit nuclear arms and expand trade |
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Gorbachev
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1985 members of Communist Perty's decision making group chose Gorbachev as new leader
Recognized something was wrong with communism in the Soviet Union |
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Glasnost
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"Openness"
Encouraged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to reform their society |
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Perestroika
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1986 (just after Glasnost)
Economic restructuring to revitalize the Soviet economy |
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Fall of the Berlin Wall
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People of East Germany demanded change
1989 Berlin Wall opened by a new East German leader End of Cold War |
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Demographic Trends in European History
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Birth rates rose in 1950s then began a constant decline
Colonial people migrated to Europe after decolonization Immigration from Africa/Middle East increased Muslim population in Western Europe |
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Women's Rights
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Feminists led by Simone de Beauvoir
Wanted to expand employment opportunities, improve access to birth-control information, and liberalize divorce laws |
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Detente
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Nixon initiated policy of detente to reduce tensions with the Soviet Union
Agreed to limit nuclear arms and expand trade |
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Gorbachev
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1985 members of Communist Perty's decision making group chose Gorbachev as new leader
Recognized something was wrong with communism in the Soviet Union |
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Glasnost
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"Openness"
Encouraged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to reform their society |
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Perestroika
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1986 (just after Glasnost)
Economic restructuring to revitalize the Soviet economy |
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Fall of the Berlin Wall
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People of East Germany demanded change
1989 Berlin Wall opened by a new East German leader End of Cold War |
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Demographic Trends in European History
|
Birth rates rose in 1950s then began a constant decline
Colonial people migrated to Europe after decolonization Immigration from Africa/Middle East increased Muslim population in Western Europe |
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Women's Rights
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Feminists led by Simone de Beauvoir
Wanted to expand employment opportunities, improve access to birth-control information, and liberalize divorce laws |
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Herbert Spencer
|
Believed society should let strong men dominate
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Iron and Blood Idea
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Otto von Bismarck
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Government in the Netherlands in 17th/18th centuries
|
Republic with decentralized government
Unique in Europe at the time |
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"Crush the infamous thing"
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Voltaire's attitude towards the Catholic church
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September Massacres
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Executions of counterrevolutionary prisoners
During the French Revolution |
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Austro-Prussian War
|
Excluded Hapsburg from power
Italy gained control of Venetia Prussia recognized as the only major power in German states |
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Age of Walpole
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British political life was freer, and more responsive to the public opinion than the continental political life
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Bismarck's attitude towards the SDP
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He was anti-socialist
Tried to suppress them Eventually gave in to a moderate form of their beliefs |
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Napoleonic Code
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1804
French civil code Privileges based on birth were abolished |
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Russian populism
|
Intended to appeal to peasants who were distrustful of student founders
Wanted a peasantry social revolution |
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Roundheads
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Supporters of parliament during British Civil War
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First International
|
Promoted Marxism
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Ancien Regime
|
Social, economic, and political conditions prior to 1789
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Karl Barth
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Pastor who believed humankind is transcended from God and depends on his grace
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19th Century Prison Reform
|
Separated all prisoners, all the time
Long periods of silence |
