A&p Ch. 18

Front 1

What two major regulatory systems responsible for control, integration and homeostatic regulation?

Back 1

nervous and endocrine

Front 2

How does the endocrine system control body activities?

Back 2

by releasing hormones into the bloodstream that alter metabolism, regulate growth and development, and influence reproductive processes; may take hours but results last longer

Front 3

How does the nervous system control body activities?

Back 3

mainly through nerve impulses , which are neurotransmitters that excite or inhibit nerve, muscle and gland cells; take miliseconds, during of effects are brief

Front 4

Describe the characteristics of the endocrine system.

Back 4

composed of ductless glands that secrete hormones to be carried by blood to a target organ.

Front 5

List and describe the two types of glands found in the endocrine system.

Back 5

exocrine - secretes hormones into ducts which empty into body cavities or body surface, ex) sweat, oil, mucous, digestive glands; endocrine - secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream ex) pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal; other organs that secrete hormones but not exclusively classified as endocrine glands: hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart & placenta

Front 6

List and describe the two types of feedback systems.

Back 6

negative - a stimulus that initiates actions that eventually will stop the stimulus ex) blood pressure; positive - a stimulus initiates actions that will prolong the stimulus ex) childbirth (RARE)

Front 7

Define hormone.

Back 7

mediator molecules (lipids or proteins) released by the endocrine system into the circulatory system that act as chemical signals

Front 8

What are the functions of hormones?

Back 8

control growth and development, regulate operation of reproductive systems, help establish circadian rhythms.

Front 9

What do hormones help regulate?

Back 9

extracellular fluid, metabolism, biological clock, contraction of cardiac & smooth muscle, glandular secretion, some immune functions

Front 10

Describe the chemical structure of hormones.

Back 10

some have the ability to pass through the target cell’s membrane while others don’t; a receptor site located on the target cell’s membrane or within the cell that will be able to bind to the hormone, the shape and chemical characteristic of the hormone allows only a specific type of hormone to bind to a specific type of receptor site and not to others

Front 11

Define synergism.

Back 11

hormonal interaction in which two or more hormones complement each other so that the target organ responds.

Front 12

Describe hormones that cannot pass through the plasma membrane.

Back 12

Larger proteins, water soluble Ex) epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 13

Describe hormones that can pass through the plasma membrane.

Back 13

Smaller proteins, lipid soluble which diffuse through and bind to intracellular receptors (located in the cytoplasm or nucleus) Ex) testosterone, estrogen.

Front 14

Describe the Pituitary Gland.

Back 14

(hypophysis) found on the inferior portion of the brain, attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum (a stalk), held within the sella turcica of the skull, controlled by the hypothalamus, has two anatomically and functionally separate parts - the anterior lobe (75% of the gland) and posterior lobe

Front 15

Describe the Anterior Pituitary.

Back 15

(adenohypophysis) connected to the hypothalamus by blood vessels in the infundibulum via the Hypothalamohypophysial Portal System (HPS)

Front 16

Describe the hypothalamus’ control over the anterior pituitary.

Back 16

controls the secretions of the anterior pituitary by the release of Releasing Hormones (rh) and Inhibiting Hormones (ih) into the HPS, they will increase the secretions of the anterior pituitary while the ih’s will decrease its secretions, in response to these hormones, the anterior pituitary will release or stop releasing its hormones into blood vessels

Front 17

List the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary.

Back 17

(hGH) human growth hormone, (ACTH) adrenocorticotropic hormone, (MSH) melanocyte-stimulating hormone, (PRL) prolactin, (TSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone, (FSH) follicle-stimulating hormone, (LH) luteinizing hormone

Front 18

Define Human Growth Hormone.

Back 18

(hGH) aka somatotropin, most plentiful of hormones in A.P, stimulates the growth and development of body cells, mostly effective on bone and muscle, regulates metabolism, increases the # of amino acids entering cells, binds directly onto the receptors of target cell membranes, growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) stimulates the secretion of GH while GHIH, also known as somatostatin, inhibits the secretion of GH

Front 19

Define Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.

Back 19

(TSH) stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), both produced by the thyroid, operates on a negative feedback system, controlled by Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH)

Front 20

Define Follicle-Stimulating Hormone.

Back 20

(FSH) females - initiates the formation of follicles within the ovary, stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen; males - stimulates sperm production in the testes; controlled by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), operates on a negative feedback system

Front 21

Define Luteinizing Hormone.

Back 21

(LH) females - triggers ovulation, formation of corpus leteum, ovulation of second oocyte from ovary, progesterone & estrogen secretion, estrogen and progesterone prepare the uterus for implantation and mammary glands for milk; males - stimulates interstitial cells in the testes to secrete testosterone, controlled by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), operates on a negative feedback system

Front 22

Define Prolactin.

Back 22

initiates and maintains milk production by the mammary glands during pregnancy, or breast tenderness for non-pregnant females; suckling reduces levels of hypothalamic inhibition and prolactin levels rise along with milk production, works synergistically with estrogen & progesterone, unknown function in males but hyper-secretion causes impotence, hyper-secretion in females causes galactorrhea (inappropriate lactation) and amenorrhea (no period), controlled by PIH and PRH.

Front 23

Define Adrenocorticotropic Hormone.

Back 23

(ACTH) controls the production and secretion of cortisol and other glucocorticoids by the cortex (outer portion) of the adrenals, stress related stimuli like low blood sugar or trauma and Interleukin-1, a substance produced by macrophages, will lead to an increase the release of ACTH; controlled by CRH’s, inhibited by glucocorticoids

Front 24

Define Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone.

Back 24

(MSH) increases skin pigmentation in amphibians, u known effect in humans, although will increase pigmentation when taken exogenously, may influence sexual behavior; controlled by CRH. Inhibited by dopamine

Front 25

Define Dwarfism.

Back 25

early epiphyseal closure, hypo-secretion of hGH

Front 26

Define Gigantism.

Back 26

hyper-secretion of hGH before the epiphyseal closure

Front 27

Define Acromegaly.

Back 27

Hyper-secretion of hGH after the epiphyseal closure, thickening of bones (hands, feet, jaw), thickening of tongue

Front 28

Describe the Posterior Pituitary.

Back 28

(neurohypophysis) does not manufacture hormones, the hypothalamus manufacturers these hormones, travel to the P.P. through the hypothalamohypophysial tract to be stored and released

Front 29

List the hormones secreted by the Posterior Pituitary.

Back 29

oxytocin, (ADH) antidiuretic hormone

Front 30

Define Oxytocin.

Back 30

rare examples of positive feedback in the body, stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in pregnant uterus and stimulates the smooth muscle around the ducts of the mammary glands in a post-partum female, resulting in ejection (letdown) of milk into ducts, Nursing a baby after delivery stimulates oxytocin release, promoting uterine contractions and the expulsion of the placenta, suckling & hearing baby’s cry stimulates milk ejection

Front 31

Define Pitocin.

Back 31

exogenous oxytocin given to start or aid labor

Front 32

Define Antidiuretic Hormone.

Back 32

(ADH) decreases urine output, ADH causes kidneys to return more water to the blood, thus decreasing urine volume; alcohol (beer) decreases production of ADH therefore increase the production of urine

Front 33

Describe hypo-secretion of ADH.

Back 33

a disease in which the individual urinates constantly and therefore is in danger of becoming dehydrated, seen in diabetes insipidus

Front 34

Describe the Thyroid Gland.

Back 34

composed of two lobes joined by an isthmus, and is found in the neck on either side of the trachea, has rich blood supply; it produces the hormones T3, T4 and calcitonin; has four small glands (parathyroid) located on the back of the thyroid gland which release Parathyroid Hormones (PTH), that increases calcium level in blood by stimulating osteoclasts

Front 35

Define T3 and T4.

Back 35

thyroid hormones that regulate cellular metabolism, growth and development, under the control of TSH (which is under the control of TRH), iodine in our diets help produce them

Front 36

Define Cretinism.

Back 36

decreased thyroid function (hypothyroidism) in young children causing decreased metabolism and nervous system development, effects include stunted growth, mental retardation, if diagnosed early, symptoms can be avoided by exogenous thyroid hormones

Front 37

Define Goiter.

Back 37

enlargement of the thyroid gland

Front 38

Describe symptoms of Hypothyroidism.

Back 38

decrease in metabolism, weight gain, cold

Front 39

Describe symptoms of Hyperthyroidism.

Back 39

high rate of metabolism, thin, warm, exopthalamus (bulging of eyes due to increase growth of fat pads behind eyes)

Front 40

Define Calcitonin.

Back 40

hormone of the thyroid gland responsible for that lowering calcium levels in blood (by inhibiting osteoclasts)

Front 41

Describe the Adrenal Glands.

Back 41

a pair of two on the superior surface of each kidney, two parts to each gland, an adrenal cortex (outside) and an adrenal medulla (inner region, sympathetic branch of the ANS)

Front 42

List and describe the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.

Back 42

1)mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) regulates amount of sodium/potassium in the blood and amount of urine being produced; 2)glucocorticoids (cortisol, released during stress), regulates metabolism and resistance to stress, decrease in certain antibodies of the immune system; 3) adrenal androgens (DHEA) are precursors to testosterone, responsible for pubic and axillary hair growth in males, sex drive in females, source of estrogen after menopause.

Front 43

List and describe the hormones produced by the Adrenal Medulla.

Back 43

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) that enhance the fight or flight response (increase hearing rate, blood pressure, blood flow, lung dilation)

Front 44

Describe the Ovaries.

Back 44

gonad (organ that produces gametes), pair of oval bodies in the female pelvic cavity that produce several steroid hormones including estrogen and progesterone, which: regulate the menstrual cycle, prepare for pregnancy and mammary glands for lactation, promote enlargement of breasts and widening of hips at puberty.

Front 45

Describe the Testes.

Back 45

gonad (organ that produces gametes), oval glands in the scrotum that produce testosterone, which: regulates the production of sperm, stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics like facial hair and voice deepening

Front 46

Describe the Pinal Gland.

Back 46

a small endocrine gland found in brain that secretes the hormone melatonin, it has unclear role in humans, but is involved with breeding seasons in other animals, in the dark, the pineal gland produces and releases more melatonin, initiating sleepiness due to lack of stimulation from sympathetic ganglion

Front 47

Describe melatonin.

Back 47

Hormone derived from serotonin that appears to contribute to the body’s biological clock; has been theorized to have an effect on sleep patterns in humans, linked to Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), a type of depression that arises during the winter months when daylight is short thus producing more melatonin.

Front 48

Describe the Pancreas.

Back 48

lies on the posterior portion of the stomach that has both exocrine (acinar cells surround a small duct) and endocrine functions (cells secrete near a capillary)

Front 49

Define Islets of Langerhans.

Back 49

(pancreatic islets) collections of cells (1-2 million) on the surface of the pancreas that secrete hormones, that together, maintain the level of glucose in the blood

Front 50

List and describe the four types of pancreatic islets.

Back 50

alpha cells (20%) produce glucagon by glycogenolysis; beta cells (70%) produce insulin by glycogenesis; delta cells (5%) produce somatostatin; F cells produce pancreatic polypeptides

Front 51

Define Glucagon.

Back 51

a hormone secreted by alpha islets that raises the glucose level in the blood

Front 52

Define Insulin.

Back 52

a hormone secreted by beta islets that decrease the glucose level in the blood

Front 53

Describe Glycogenolysis.

Back 53

the raising of blood glucose by glucagon traveling to the liver and causing the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, then releasing it into the blood to maintain homeostasis

Front 54

Describe Glycogenesis.

Back 54

The lowering of blood glucose by insulin traveling to the liver and causing the bonding of many glucose molecules together, forming glycogen, which causes an increase in the permeability of the cell membrane to glucose, allowing for passage of from the blood into the cell and therefore decreasing the blood glucose level.

Front 55

Describe Diabetes Mellitus.

Back 55

hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin, causing blood glucose levels to remain high, but reducing the amount of glucose that can pass through the cell membrane, thus starving the cells; lipid catabolism occurs to offset the imbalance which produces by products (acetone, acetoacetic acid and betahydroxybuteric acid) known as ketones which leads to acidosis; Type I, II, Gestational ; symptoms: polyphagia, polydipsia and polyuria;

Front 56

Describe Type I Diabetes.

Back 56

insulin dependent, autoimmune disease in which beta cells are destroyed, sudden symptoms usually in childhood, who experienced a viral infection early on, maybe linked to a gene on chromosome 6

Front 57

List the symptoms of Type I Diabetes.

Back 57

Increased thirst, increased hunger (especially after eating), dry mouth, nausea and occasionally vomiting, abdominal pain, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss (even though you are eating and feel hungry), fatigue (weak, tired feeling), blurred vision, heavy, labored breathing (Kussmaul respiration), frequent infections of the skin, urinary tract or vagina

Front 58

Describe Type II Diabetes.

Back 58

non-insulin dependent, usually occurs in middle age, hereditary is a factor, usually overweight, 90% of diabetes cases, insulin is produced, but the amount is inadequate or there are no longer enough receptors on the cell membranes

Front 59

List the symptoms of Type II Diabetes.

Back 59

increased thirst, increased hunger (especially after eating), dry mouth, nausea and occasionally vomiting, frequent urination, fatigue (weak, tired feeling), blurred vision, numbness or tingling of the hands or feet, frequent infections of the skin, urinary tract or vagina

Front 60

Describe Gestational Diabetes.

Back 60

occurs in women during pregnancy and may indicate a higher probability of Type II diabetes later on

Front 61

List the diagnostics tests for DM.

Back 61

Fructosamine, Fasting Glucose, Blood Pressure, Triglycerides, Cholesterol, Urinalysis, Antioxidant Profile, Insulin, Lipoprotein, C-Peptide, Hba1c, C-Reactive Protein, Homocysteine, Spectracell

Front 62

List the collective signs and symptoms of DM.

Back 62

Constipation, Dehydration, Diarrhea, Fatigue, Gangrene, Hypertension, Impotence, Polydipsia, Polyneuropathy, Polyphagia, Polyuria, Proteinuria, Weight Gain/Loss, Ulcers, Skin, Accelerated Rate of Degeneration Joints

Front 63

List the chronic complications of DM.

Back 63

Small Vessel Disease- blindness (25X), Renal disease (17X), Gangrene (5X), Coronary Disease (2X), amputations (55% patients); Large Vessel Disease, Susceptibility to Infection, Insulin Shock, Hyperglycemia Reaction

Front 64

Define Gaba.

Back 64

enhances insulin sensitivity

Front 65

Define Biotin.

Back 65

synergistic with insulin

Front 66

Define Thiamin.

Back 66

decreases symptoms of sensory neuropathy

Front 67

Define Potassium.

Back 67

decreases insulin resistance

Front 68

Define Copper.

Back 68

vital in wound healing and protein synthesis

Front 69

Define Quercetin.

Back 69

may prevent neuropathy and retinopathy in diabetic mellitus patients

Front 70

Define Chromium.

Back 70

essential to proper metabolism and maintaining safe sugar levels

Front 71

List suggestions of lifestyles changes to patients with DM.

Back 71

increase fiber intake to 25-40 gm/day, encourage consumption of complex CHO, avoid refined carbohydrates, avoid tobacco, limit alcohol, avoid fried foods, monitor blood glucose levels 2xday, encourage weight loss thought change of diet and exercise

Front 72

List clinical applications of diagnosing DM.

Back 72

take complete and thorough history; Assess Patients [postural aspect, neurological component, sensory component, muscular component, orthopedically, skin lesions (note any), etc; request necessary imaging (based on findings); treat the neuromuscular component and co-manage with appropriate health care provider