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133 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Matter
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Anything that takes up space and has mass
Exists in diverse forms |
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Element
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A substance that cannot be broken to other chemical reactions
There are 92 naturally made elements. Examples: gold, cooper, carbon, oxygen |
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Compound
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A substance consisting of 2 or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
Has characteristics different from those of its elements |
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Trace elements
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Elements required by an organism in only minute quantities
Examples: iodine, boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium |
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Atom
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The smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
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Neutrons
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Subatomic particles that are electrically neutral
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Protons
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Subatomic particles that have unit of positive charge
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Electrons
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Subatomic particles that have one unit of negative charge
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Atomic nucleus
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The core and center of an atom, in which protons and neutrons are contained
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What is an easement in gross? What is a classic example?
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An easement in gross occurs where there is no dominant estate b/c there is only one parcel of land involved, which is the property burdened by the easement – or the servient estate.
Ex: Utility putting pipes underground or a railroad laying tracks. |
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Atomic number
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The number of protons within an atom
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons Written as subscript before element abbreviation |
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Mass number
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The sum of an atom's number of protons and neutrons
Written as superscript before element abbreviation |
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Atomic mass
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The total mass of an atom
Can be approximated by the masses of all the protons and neutrons within the atom |
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Isotopes
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Different atomic forms, based on variations in the number of neutrons in the atom
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Radioactive isotope
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An isotope in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, releasing particles and energy, and transforming the atom into one of a different element
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Energy
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the capacity to cause change
example: capacity to do work |
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Potential energy
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Energy that matter possessed because of its location or structure
Matter has a natural tendency to move to the lowest possible state of potential energy |
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Electron shells
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A distance encompassing an electron's average distance form the nucleus, and the atom's energy level
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Valence electrons
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Electrons within the outermost electron shell
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Valence shell
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The outermost electron shell of an atom
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Orbital
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The three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90% of the time
No more than 2 electrons can occupy a single orbital |
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Chemical bonds
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Interactions that cause atoms to stay close together
Strongest kinds: covalent bonds and ionic bonds |
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Covalent bond
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The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by tow atoms
Two or ore atoms held together by covalent bonds constitute a molecule |
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Single bond
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A pair of shared electrons
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Structural formula
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The notations representing both atoms and bonding (example: H - H)
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Molecular formula
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A notations indicating the atoms a molecule consists of.
Example: H2O (2 in subscript) |
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Double bond
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Bond in which 2 atoms share two pairs of valence electrons with one another
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Valence
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An atom's bonding capacity. Usually equals the number of unpaired electrons needed to complete the atom's valence shell
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Electronegativity
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The attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent bond
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Nonpolar covalent bond
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A bond in which the electrons are shared equally, because the two atoms are equally electronegative
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Polar covalent bond
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A bond in which an atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom, and the electrons of the bond aren't shared equally
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Ion
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A charged atom or molecule
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Cation
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A positively charged atom or molecule
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Anion
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A negatively charged atom or molecule
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Ionic bond
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The attraction between cations and anions
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Ionic compounds
Salts |
Compounds formed by ionic bonds
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Hydrogen bond
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A bond forming when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom
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Van der Waals interactions
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Interactions between ever-changing positive and regions of a molecule, which causes the atoms of the molecule to stick together, due to attractions
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Chemical reactions
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The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter
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Reactants
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Starting materials before a chemical reaction
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Products
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end result of a chemical reaction
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Chemical equilibrium
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the point at which reactants offset one another
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polar molecule
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a molecule that does not have unequal distributions of electrons
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cohesion
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the holding of a substance together due to hydrogen bonds
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adhesion
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the clinging of one substance to another
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surface tension
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a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. happens because water molecules on surface are attached to adjacent molecules and molecules below surface
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kinetic energy
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the energy of motion
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heat
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a form of energy
a measure the matter's total kinetic energy due to molecular motion |
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temperature
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a measure of heat intensity
represents average kinetic energy of the molecules, regardless of volume |
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Celsius scale
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indicates temperature
water freezes at 0 degrees C, and boils at 100 degrees C average human body temperature: 37 degrees C typical room temperature: 20-25 degrees C |
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calorie (cal)
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the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree C
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kilocalorie (kcal)
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the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 degree C
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joule (J)
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a unit of energy
1 J = 0.239 cal 1 cal = 4.184 J |
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specific heat
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the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature by 1 degree C
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heat of vaporization
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the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state
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evaporative cooling
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the cooling down of a surface of liquid after some liquid evaporates from it. occurs because the molecules with the greatest kinetic energy are most likely to evaporate from and leave the surface
contributes to the stability of temperature in lakes and ponds |
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solution
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a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
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solvent
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the dissolving agent of a solution
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solute
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the substance that is dissolved within a solution
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aqueous solution
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a solution in which water is the solvent
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hydration shell
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the sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion, which are separated by the water molecules
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hydrophilic
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any substance that has an affinity for water
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colloid
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a stable suspension of fine particles in a liquid
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hydrophobic
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substances that are nonionic and nonpolar and therefore seem to repel water
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molecular mass
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the sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule
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mole (mol)
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units that measure substances
1 mol of objects = 6.02 * 10^23 of those objects = Avogadro's number |
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MOlarity
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the number of soles of solute per liter of solution
unit of concentration most often used by biologists for aqueous solutions |
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hydrogen ion
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a hydrogen atom with a charge of +1 and no electron
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acid
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a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
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base
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a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
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Buffers
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substances that minimize changes in the concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution
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acid precipitation
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rain, snow, or fog with a pH lower than pH 5.2
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organic chemistry
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the branch of chemistry that specializes in the study of carbon compounds
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hydrocarbons
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organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
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isomers
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compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties
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structural isomers
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isomers that differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
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geometric isomers
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isomers that have the same covalent partnerships but differ in their spatial arrangements
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enantiomers
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isomers that are mirror images of each other
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functional groups
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important chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions. include: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups
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Hydroxyl group
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structure: --OH
name of compound: alcohols example: ethanol funcitonal properties: polar, can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules |
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Carbonyl group
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structure; >C=O
name of compound: ketones (group is in middle of compound) and aldehydes (group is at end of compound) examples: acetone, propanal functional properties: ketones and aldehydes may be structural isomers, carboxyl groups are found in sugars |
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Carboxyl group
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structure: --C=O, that same C is connected to OH (simplified: --COOH)
name of compound: carboxylic acids example: acetic acid functional properties: has acidic properties, can be found in cells in ionized form (charge of -1) |
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Amino group
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structure: --NH2
name of compound: amines example: glycine functional properties: acts as a base, under cellular conditions has charge of +1 |
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Sulfhydryl group
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structure: --SH
name of compound: thiols example: cysteine functional properties: "cross-linking" stabilizes protein structure, and maintains hair's curliness/straightness |
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Phosphate group
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structure: OPO3 (charge -2)
name of compound: organic phosphates example: glycerol phosphate functional properties: contributes negative charge to molecule of which it is part; has potential to react with water, releasing energy |
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Methyl group
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structure: --CH3
name of compound: methylated compounds example: 5-methyl cytidine functional properties: addition of methyl group to DNA affects gene expression; arrangement of methyl groups in gametes affects their shape & function |
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adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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an organic phosphate
a phosphate splits off in reaction with water, which releases energy |
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macromolecules
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huge molecules
include: carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids |
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polymer
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a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical buildings blocks linked by covalent bonds
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monomers
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repeating units of a polymer
smaller molecules than polymers |
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condensation reaction
dehydration reaction |
the creation of a water molecule due to the removal of a hydroxide group off of one monomer and a hydrogen off of the other group to join the two monomers together
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hydrolysis
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the loss of a molecule to create the hydrogen end of one monomer and the hydroxide end of the other monomer to unlink the two monomers
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carbohydrates
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sugars and polymers of sugars
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monosaccharides
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sugars whose formula is some multiple of CH2O
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disaccharide
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consists of 2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
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glycosidic linkage
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a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction, to create a disaccharide
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polysaccharides
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macromolecules
polyers wiht a few hundred-few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages |
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starch
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a polymer of glucose monomers
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glycogen
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a polymer of glucose that is very branched and is stored in animal cellls
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cellulose
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a polysaccharide and major component of plants cell walls
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chitin
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the carbohydrate used by arthropods to build their exoskeleton
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lipids
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hydrophobic molecules
are not macromolecules consist mostly of hydrocarbon regions 3 types: fats, phospholipids, and steroids |
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fat
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constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules glycerol (alcohol with 3 carbons) and fatty acids
type of lipid |
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fatty acid
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has a long carbon skeleton
is part of a fat |
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triaglycerol
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a fat made of 3 fatty acid molecules, each joined by an ester linkage, a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group
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saturated fatty acid
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a fatty acid in which there are no double bonds in the carbon skeleton of the chain
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unsaturated fatty acid
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a fatty acid in which there are double bonds in the carbon skeleton of the chain
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trans fats
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fats that have unsaturated fatty acids with "trans" double bonds
contributes to atherosclerosis |
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phospholipids
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lipid that makes up cell membranes
has two fatty acids and a head made of a choline, phosphate group, and glycerol |
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steroids
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lipids that have a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
a hormone |
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cholesterol
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a steroid that is component of animal cell membranes and producer of more steroids
is synthesized in the liver |
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enzymes
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usually porteins
they selectively speed up chemical reactions are catalysts |
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catalysts
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chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction
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polypeptides
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polymers of amino acids
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protein
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consists of one or more polypeptides, each foiled and coiled into a specific 3-D structure
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peptide bond
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the bond between the amino acids by a dehydration reaction, which removes a water molecule
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primary structure
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a protein's unique sequence of amino acids
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secondary structure
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coils and coils in the amino acid chain due to hydrogen bonding
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alpha helix
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a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid
one of two main types of secondary structure |
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beta pleated sheet
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one of two main types of secondary structure
two or more regions of polypeptide chain are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel polypeptide backbones |
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tertiary structure
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a protein's structure due to hydrogen bonding, disulfide bridges, van der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interactions, and interactions between the side chains
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hydrophobic interactions
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tendency of hydrophobic side chains to cluster at the core of the protein, affecting the protein's shape
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disulfide bridges
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covalent bonds formed when two amino acids with sulfhydryl groups are brought close together by the folding of the protein
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quaternary structure
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the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits
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denaturation
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a change of environment that causes the protein unravel and lose its shape, and become biologically inactive
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chaperonins
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protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins
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X-ray crystallography
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method to determine protein's 3-D structure
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gene
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an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide programmed by a unit of inheritance
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nucleic acids
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are polynucleotides
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nucleotides
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monomers that make up nucleic acids
consists of: phosphate group, pentose, and nitrogenous base |
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prymidine
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six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen rings
CTU nitrogenous base |
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purines
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six-membered ring fused to five-membered ring
nitrogenous base AG |
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antiparallel
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an arrangement of sugar-phosphate backbones
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