A&p 2 Lecture

Front 1

Endocrinology involves the study of the endocrine organs and _______

Back 1

hormones

Front 2

which of the following is NOT a major endocrine gland:

A. Adrenal

B. Kidney

C. Thyroid

D. Pituitary

Back 2

Kidney

Front 3

T/F: Autocrines are long-distance chemical signals that travel in blood or lymph throughout the body

Back 3

F - short-distance

Front 4

Steroids are synthesized from _____

Back 4

cholesterol

Front 5

When one hormone opposes the action of another hormone, the interaction is called _______

Back 5

antagonism

Front 6

what occurs in a negative feedback system

Back 6

target organ effects inhibit further hormone release

Front 7

what hormone stimulates most body cells to increase in size and divide?

Back 7

growth hormone

Front 8

_________ involves the loss of receptors and prevents the target cells from overreacting to persistently high hormone levels

Back 8

down-regulation

Front 9

what disorder results from hyposecretion of growth hormone

Back 9

pituitary dwarf syndrome

Front 10

what hormone stimulates gamete production

Back 10

follicle-stimulating hormone

Front 11

as blood levels of _______ rise the expulsive contractions of labor gain momentum and finally end in birth

Back 11

oxytocin

Front 12

the cells found in the parathyroid gland that secrete the parathyroid hormone are called ______

Back 12

parathyroid cells

Front 13

which condition, if left untreated, progress to respiratory paralysis and death?

Back 13

hypoparathyroidism

Front 14

which homeostatic imbalance results from deficits in both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Back 14

Addison's disease

Front 15

growth hormone, secreted by the ________ gland stimulates growth of bones and muscle

Back 15

anterior pituitary

Front 16

the anterior pituitary stimulates growth of bones and muscle by activating intermediary proteins called ________

Back 16

IGFs - insulin growth factors

Front 17

_________ from the anterior pituitar stimulates secretion of cortisol

Back 17

adrenocorticotropic hormone

Front 18

cortisol is secreted from the _________ (gland)

Back 18

adrenal cortex

Front 19

The anterior pituitary consists of ______ tissue

Back 19

glandular

Front 20

the parafollicular or C cells of the _______ gland produce ________ a peptide hormone that lowers plasma calcium levels

Back 20

thyroid

calcitonin

Front 21

Hormones secreted by the pancreatic islets of the pancreas include _______ from the alpha cells and _______ from the beta cells

Back 21

glucagon

insulin

Front 22

which hormone secreted by the pancreas raises blood glucose levels

Back 22

glucagon

Front 23

specialized muscle cells in the atria of the heart produce _________ (hormone) which increases excretion by the kidneys

Back 23

atrial natriuretic peptide

Front 24

atrial natriuretic peptide hormone increases excretion of ________ by the kidneys

Back 24

sodium

Front 25

___________ (hormone) promotes the final conversion of vitamin D to _________ in the kidney

Back 25

parathyroid hormone

calcitriol

Front 26

_________ (hormone) produced by the G cells i the pyloric antrum stimulates _____ secretion in the stomach

Back 26

gastrin

HCl

Front 27

One hypothalamic hormone, ___________ is essentiral for the stress response as well as ______

Back 27

corticotropin-releasing

dopamine

Front 28

________ = a hypothalamic hormone that inhibits release of prolactin

Back 28

dopamine

Front 29

_______ (hormone) is a stimulus for sperm production in the male and maturation of ovarian follicles in the female

Back 29

follicle-stimulating

Front 30

________ secreted by the pineal gland, helps regulate body activities with the light/dark cycle

Back 30

melatonin

Front 31

the zona flomerulosa of the adrenal cortex primarily produces the hormone _______

Back 31

aldosterone

Front 32

aldosterone acts on the _______ to increase ______ reabsorption

Back 32

kidneys

sodium

Front 33

the __________ (gland region) is a modified sympathetic ganglion producing the amine hormones known as ________

Back 33

adrenal medulla

catecholamines

Front 34

catecholamines includes to hormones:

Back 34

epinephrine

norepinephrine

Front 35

the testes produces a steroid hormone called ____ in the interstitial cells

Back 35

testosterone

Front 36

the testes produces a peptide hormone called ______ that inhibits FSH

Back 36

inhibin

Front 37

Large follicles in the ______ gland gontain a protein colloid called _______

Back 37

thyroid

thyroglobulin

Front 38

thyroglobulin produces the hormones ____ and _____

Back 38

T3 and T4

Front 39

T3 and T4 regulate _________ functions and are important for ________ system development and growth

Back 39

metabolic

nervous

Front 40

Nuclei in the ventral hypothalamus produce two hormones that are stored in the posterior pituitary.

- Name the two nuclei that produce these hormones

- name the two hormones

- which is important for water balance

Back 40

supraoptic nucleus - ADH

paraventricular nucleus - oxytocin

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Front 41

name the important peptides

Back 41

insulin

glucagon

growth hormone

ADH

Front 42

name the imporant amines

Back 42

T3

T4

epinephrine

norepinephrine

Front 43

name the imporant steroids

Back 43

testosterone

cortisol

aldosterone

estradiol

Front 44

Peptide hormones are synthesized as large precursor hormones called ________

Back 44

preprohormones

Front 45

preprohormones are stored in ________ and released from the cell by ______

Back 45

secretory vesicles

exocytosis

Front 46

do peptide hormones require a carrier in the bloodstream?

Back 46

no

Front 47

catecholamines are produced in the _______ of the adrenal gland and are classified as amine hormones because they are derived from _______

Back 47

medulla

tyrosine

Front 48

stimulation of the chromaffin cells causes an influx of ______ ions, which causes the vesicles to merge with the plasma membrane and release the hormone by ______

Back 48

calcium

exocytosis

Front 49

are catecholamines water soluble or liquid soluble

Back 49

water-soluble

Front 50

Thyroid hormones include _____ and _____

Back 50

T3 and T4

Front 51

are carriers required for the transport of thyroid hormones?

Back 51

yes

Front 52

All steroid hormones are derived from _______; each is determined by _____ present in the cell

Back 52

cholesterol

enzymes

Front 53

The common precursor molecule for all steroid hormones is ______

Back 53

pregnenolone

Front 54

steroid hormones enter the blood stream via _______ and (do/do not) require a carrier

Back 54

diffusion

do

Front 55

The rate of secretion of steroid hormones is (faster/slower) than that of catecholamines because steroid hormones are not __________

Back 55

slower

stored in the secretory vesicles

Front 56

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers trigger the release of ________ and ________ (hormones) from the ________ (gland)

Back 56

epinephrine and norepinephrine

adrenal medulla

Front 57

The negative feedback of T3 and T4 decrease ______ levels

Back 57

TSH

Front 58

The negative feedback of cortisol decreases both ____ and _____ levels

Back 58

ACTH

CRH

Front 59

Besides increased levels of plasma glucose and amino acids, increased levels of the hormone _____ and stimulation of the ______ nervous system also increase plasma insulin levels

Back 59

GIP

parasympathetic

Front 60

Some hormones are released in rhythmic 24-hour patterns known as ________ rhythms

Back 60

circadian

Front 61

______ is a hormone allowing stressful stimuli to override the circadian rhythm and increases the plasma hormone levels

Back 61

cortisol

Front 62

_____ hormones are an example of large amounts of the hormones being bound to carrier proteins in the plasma forming a large circulation reservoir

Back 62

thyroid

Front 63

the ______ and ______ are the major organs that metabolize hormones

Back 63

liver

kidneys

Front 64

______ and ______ are rapidly metabolized in the liver and kidneys; while the _____ and _____ take longer to metabolize

Back 64

peptide hormones

catecholamines

thyroid and steroid hormones

Front 65

Hormones cause a biochemical change in the cell. The 5 possible changes include:

Back 65

contraction

secretion

transport

synthesis

breakdown

Front 66

water soluble proteins such as _______ and ______ bind to receptors located on the ______

Back 66

peptides

catecholamines

cell membrane

Front 67

what catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP

Back 67

adenylate cyclase

Front 68

A single molecule of a hormone can have a large effect on the cell. Name the process that makes this possible

Back 68

amplification

Front 69

what enzyme inactivates cAMP?

Back 69

phosphodiesterase

Front 70

name the storage form of glucose

Back 70

glycogen

Front 71

name the storage form of amino acids

Back 71

proteins

Front 72

name the storage form of fatty acids

Back 72

triglycerides

Front 73

conversion to the storage form is known as _______ metabolism

Back 73

anabolic

Front 74

after a meal, high levels of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acides leads to an ________(increase/decrease) in insulin secretion

Back 74

increase

Front 75

sympathetic _________(increase/decrease) insulin secretion

Back 75

decreases

Front 76

parasympathetic _______ (increase/decrease) insulin secretion

Back 76

increases

Front 77

insulin travels in the blood and binds to what type of receptors on the cell membrane?

Back 77

tyrosine kinase

Front 78

what is the approximate halflife of insulin

Back 78

10 minutes

Front 79

what hormone increases plasma glucose levels

Back 79

glucagon

Front 80

glucagon breaks down the storage forms and is known as ______ metabolism

Back 80

catabolic

Front 81

what type of diabetes is characterized by a resistance of the target cells to insulin? Plasma insulin levels are (normal/high)

Back 81

Type 2

normal to slightly elevated

Front 82

In type 1 diabetes, the lack of insulin and glycogenolysis in the liver leads to _______

Back 82

hyperglycemia

Front 83

with the increase in filtration of glucose at the kidneys, the carriers become _________ and the glucose appears in the urine, also known as ______

Back 83

saturated

glucosuria

Front 84

glucose acts as an ________, leading to urine flow

Back 84

osmotic diuretic

Front 85

increased lipolysis produces an increase in ________, which, when used as fuel produces ______

Back 85

plasma lipids

ketones

Front 86

The presence of ketones in plasma and urine is known as _____ and _____

Back 86

ketosis

ketonuria

Front 87

Lipid soluble hormones such as _____ and _____ hormones bind to receptors ___________ the cell

Back 87

steroid and thyroid

within

Front 88

the hormone-receptor complexes act as _________ and then binds to _____. the mRNA produces _______ that catalyze biological reactions in the cell

Back 88

transcription factors

DNA

enzymes

Front 89

name 4 major actions of cortisol that are important for stress response

Back 89

gluconeogenesis/glycogenolysis

lipolysis and protein breakdown

enhances vasoconstriction

inhibits immune response and inflammation

Front 90

the main function of the thyroid hormones are:

Back 90

regulating metabolic rate

alter carb, lipid, and protein metabolism

essential for growth

essential for nervous system development and function

Front 91

the anterior pituitary is composed of _______

Back 91

epithelial

Front 92

name the 6 classic hormones whose functions are well know

Back 92

TSH

FSH

LH

ACTH

GH

PRL

Front 93

TRH, GNRH, and CRH are released into capillary beds and carried directly to the pituitary by the ________ located in the ______

Back 93

hypophyseal portal veins

infundibulum

Front 94

_____ and ______ are the posterior pituitary hormones

Back 94

oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH)

Front 95

give an example of hormones that has negative feedback mainly to the anterior pituitary

Back 95

T3 and T4

Front 96

give an example of a hormone that has negative feedback to both the anterior pituitary and the ventral hypothalamus

Back 96

cortisol

Front 97

Prolactin is unique in that the main hypothalamic hormone regulating its secretion, _______ in inhibits its release

Back 97

dopamine

Front 98

which hormone increases prolactin release

Back 98

estrogen

Front 99

_______ hormones are necessary for the release of the growth hormone

Back 99

thyroid

Front 100

suckling of an infant causes milk letdown by stimulating what hormone?

Back 100

oxytocin

Front 101

changes in osmolarity detected by chemically sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus will alter what hormones level?

Back 101

vasopressin (ADH)

Front 102

cortisol release is synchronized by the light/dark cycle and has a 24-hour pattern of secretion known as ______

Back 102

circadian rhythm

Front 103

Levels of cortisol are highest during what part of the day?

Back 103

early morning

Front 104

besides controlling levels of ____ and ____, TSH also promotes _____ of the thyroid gland

Back 104

T3 and T4

Growth

Front 105

T4 are carried in the bloodstream bound to _______ because they are _____

Back 105

carrier proteins

lipophilic

Front 106

T3 and T4 enter target cells by _____ and bind to receptors located in the ____. They are synthesized by ___ and ____

Back 106

diffusion

nucleus

tyrosine

iodine

Front 107

hypothyroidism is also known as _____

Back 107

myxedema

Front 108

what are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?

Back 108

lethargy

low BMR

low to normal heart beat

feeling cold

weight gain

Front 109

lack of dietary iodine would cause _____ hypothyroidism and the patient would probably get an iodine-deficient ______

Back 109

primary

goiter

Front 110

Graves' disease is the most common cause of primary ________

Back 110

hyperthyroidism

Front 111

In graves' disease, the body secretes ________, which mimics the action of TSH and may cause a _____ as well as high levels of thyroid hormones

Back 111

thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin

goiter

Front 112

increased levels of what three hormones indicate that an individual is experiencing stress?

Back 112

epinephrine

norepinephrine

cortisol

Front 113

epinephrine and norepinephrine response to stress by increasing/decreasing effects on the body.. name them

Back 113

increased CO, sweating, ventilation, blood pressure, plasma levels

decreased insulin, and blood flow to digestive system

Front 114

in response to stress, the hypothalamus increases the release of CRH, which increases _____ from the anterior pituitary and ______ from the adrenal cortex

Back 114

ACTH

cortisol

Front 115

Cortisol enhances ______ in vessels to help maintain blood pressure

Back 115

constriction

Front 116

besides cortisol, the adrenal cortex releases _______ which promotes salt and water retention - helping maintain blood volume and pressure

Back 116

aldosterone

Front 117

_______ also aids in the stress response by promoting water retention at high levels, it is also a potent ________

Back 117

vasopressin

vasoconstriction

Front 118

epinephrine is a ______ hormone, thus it does not require a protein carrier and he receptors at the target cell are located _______

Back 118

hydrophilic

on the membrane

Front 119

epinephrine is synthesized from ______ and has a very short half-life of _____

Back 119

tyrosine

10 seconds

Front 120

________ is a condition in which there is hypercecretion of catacholamines by a tumor in the adrenal medulla

Back 120

pheochromocytoma

Front 121

pheochromocytoma causes:

Back 121

sweating

increased BP

increased blood glucose

increased heart rate

increased TPR

Front 122

cortisol is a _______ hormone, thus it does require a protein carrier, and receptors are located ___

Back 122

lipophilic

within the cell

Front 123

cortisol is synthesized by _______ and has a half life of ______

Back 123

cholesterol

90 minutes

Front 124

hypercortisolism is known as _________

Back 124

cushings disease

Front 125

_________ is due to a hypersecreting tumor in the anterior pituitary - hypersecreted hormore ______

Back 125

cushings disease

ACTH

Front 126

hypercortisolism from reasons other than a hypersecreting tumor is called________ - an example is ______

Back 126

cushings syndrome

glucocorticoid drugs

Front 127

Primary adrenal insufficiency is better known as _________. what two hormones are insufficient

Back 127

Addison's disease

aldosterone and cortisol

Front 128

what are the characteristics of Addisons disease

Back 128

low BP

decreased plasma sodium

hypoglycemia

Front 129

what are the characteristics of cushings disease

Back 129

high BP

poor wound healing

hyperglycemia

Front 130

what is the function of the endocrine system

Back 130

interact with nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of body cells

Front 131

what are the key differences between endocrine and neural control of homeostasis

Back 131

neural - regulates muscle and gland activity via electrochemical impulses delivered by neurons

endocrine - influences metabolic activity via hormones

Front 132

what are the major processes that hormones control and integrate

Back 132

-reproduction

-growth and development

-maintenance of electrolyte, H20, and nutrient balance of blood

-regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance

-mobilization of body defenses

Front 133

what are the major endocrine glands

Back 133

pineal

pituitary

hypothalamus

thyroid

thymus

adrenal glands

pancreas

gonads

Front 134

what are the endocrine organs associated with neuroendocrine

Back 134

hypothalamus

pancreas

gonads

placenta

Front 135

what are the endocrine organs associated with: glands with mixed functions

Back 135

pituitary

thyroid

parathyroid

adrenal

pineal

Front 136

what are the organs with endocrine cells

Back 136

small intestine

stomach

kidneys

heart

Front 137

define exocrine glands

Back 137

produce non-hormonal substances

have ducts that carry to surface

Front 138

give an example of exocrine glands

Back 138

sweat and saliva

Front 139

define endocrine glands

Back 139

ductless glands that release hormones into surrounding tissue

Front 140

chemical messengers that are secreted by cells into extracellular fluid

Back 140

hormones

Front 141

what is the function of hormones

Back 141

regulate metabolic functions of other cells in the body

Front 142

chemicals that exert their effects on the same cells secreted

Back 142

autocrines

Front 143

chemical messengers that act locally, but also affect cell types other than those releasing

Back 143

paracrines

Front 144

identify two chemical classes of hormones

Back 144

amino acids

steroids

Front 145

what effects do hormones have on target cells

Back 145

-alters plasma membrane permeability by opening/closing ion channels

-stimulates synthesis of enzymes and other proteins in cell

-activates/deactivates enzymes

-includes secretory activity

-stimulates mitosis

Front 146

how do water-soluble hormones activate a target cell

Back 146

act on receptors in the plasma membrane receptors are coupled via regulatory molecules (G proteins) with proteins of second messengers that cause targets cell response

Front 147

identify 2 major second messenger systems utilized by water-soluble hormones

Back 147

cyclic AMP

PIP2- calcium

Front 148

how do lipid soluble hormones activate a target cell

Back 148

acts on receptors inside of the cell and directly activates genes

Front 149

examples of lipid soluble hormones

Back 149

steroids and thyroid hormones

Front 150

name 3 factors that determine the level of target cell activation

Back 150

1. blood levels of hormone

2. relative numbers of receptors for that hormone on target cells

3. strength of binding btw hormone and receptor

Front 151

what is up-regulation

Back 151

persistent low levels of hormone can cause target cells to form an additional receptor

Front 152

what is down-regulation

Back 152

desensitized target cells to respond less vigorously to stimulation

Front 153

how does negative feedback work

Back 153

stimulus triggers hormone secretion -> the hormone levels rise --> target organ effects --> inhibits futher hormone release

Front 154

identify three ways endocrine glands are stimulated to release hormones and explain

Back 154

humoral - direct response to changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients

hormonal - release hormones in response to other organs hormones

neural - nerve fibers stimulate hormone release

Front 155

which hormone class has the shortest half life

Back 155

water soluble

Front 156

list three kinds of interactions of different hormones acting on the same target cell

Back 156

permissiveness

synergism

antagonism

Front 157

________: when one hormone cant exert full effects without another hormone

Back 157

permissiveness

Front 158

_______: when more than one hormone produces the same effects at target cell - the combined effects are amplified

Back 158

synergism

Front 159

________: one hormone opposes the action of another

Back 159

antagonism

Front 160

describe the structural and functional relationships between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland

Back 160

connected by the infundibulum

the pituitary releases neurohormones received by the hypothalamus

Front 161

what is the function/structure of the posterior pituitary gland

Back 161

largely neural tissue - releases neurohormone recieved by the hypothalamus

is a hormone storage area, doesn't manufacture

Front 162

what is the function/structure of the anterior pituitary gland

Back 162

mostly glandular tissue - manufactures and releases hormones

Front 163

how does the hypothalamus control the activity of the pituitary gland

Back 163

hypophyseal portal system - releases and inhibits hormones

Front 164

what are the two posterior pituitary hormones

Back 164

oxytocin

ADH

Front 165

what is the source of oxytocin

Back 165

stimulated by impulses from the hypothalmic neurons in response to cervical/uterine stretching and sucking of infant at breast

Front 166

what inhibits oxytocin

Back 166

lack of appropriate neural stimuli

Front 167

target organ of oxytocin

Back 167

uterus

breast

Front 168

effect of oxytocin on uterus

Back 168

stimulates uterine contractions, initiates labor

Front 169

effect of oxytocin on breast

Back 169

initiates milk ejection

Front 170

how is ADH stimulated

Back 170

impulses from hypothalamic neurons in response to increased blood solute conc. or decreased blood volume

-also stimulated by pain, drugs and low bp

Front 171

how is ADH inhibited

Back 171

adequate hydration of the body

alcohol

Front 172

target organ of ADH and effect

Back 172

kidneys - stimulate kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water

Front 173

hyposecretion of ADH

Back 173

diabetes insipidus

Front 174

hypersecretion of ADH

Back 174

syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)

Front 175

cell type of growth hormone

Back 175

protein, somatotropic cells

Front 176

how is growth hormone stimulated

Back 176

GHRH release - triggered by low blood levels of growth hormone

-hypoglycemia

-low levels of fatty acids

Front 177

how is GH inhibitd

Back 177

-feedback inhibition exerted by GH and IGFs

-hyperglycemia

-obesity

Front 178

target organs of GH

Back 178

Liver

muscle

bone

cartilage

Front 179

hyposecretion of GH

Back 179

pituitary dwarf syndrome in children

Front 180

hypersecretion of GH

Back 180

gigantism in children

acromegaly in adults

Front 181

how is TSH stimulated

Back 181

by TRH

in infants - cold temp

Front 182

how is TSH inhibited

Back 182

by feedback inhibition exerted by glucocorticoids

Front 183

target organ of TSH

Back 183

thyroid gland - stimulated organ to release thyroid hormones

Front 184

hyposecretion of TSH

Back 184

cretinism in children

myxedema in adults

Front 185

hypersecretion of TSH

Back 185

hyperthyroidism

Front 186

how is ACTH stimulated

Back 186

by CRH and hypoglycemia

Front 187

target organ of ACTH

Back 187

adrenal cortex - promotes release of glucocorticoids and androgens

Front 188

hypersecretion of ACTH

Back 188

Cushing's Disease

Front 189

how is FSH stimulated

Back 189

by GnRH

Front 190

how is FSH inhibited

Back 190

by feedback inhibition exerted by inhibin

estrongen in females

testosterone in males

Front 191

target organ of FSH and how

Back 191

ovaries - stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen production

testes - stimulates sperm production

Front 192

hyposecretion of FSH

Back 192

failure of sexual maturation

Front 193

how is LH stimulated

Back 193

by GnRH

Front 194

how is LH inhibited

Back 194

feedback inhibition exerted by estrogen and progesterone in females and testosterone in males

Front 195

target organs of LH

Back 195

ovaries - triggers ovulation and stimulates production of estrogen and progesterone

testes - promones testosterone production

Front 196

hyposecretion of LH

Back 196

failure of sexual maturation

Front 197

how is PRL stimulated

Back 197

by decreased dopamine

release enhacened by estrogens, bc pills, breast feeding, and dopamine blocking drugs

Front 198

how is PRL inhibited

Back 198

by dopamine

Front 199

what is the target organ of PRL

Back 199

breast secretory tissue - promotes lactation

Front 200

hyposection of PRL

Back 200

poor milk production in nursing women

Front 201

hypersecretion of PRL

Back 201

inappropriate milk production

Front 202

what is a follicle

Back 202

in the thyroid gland, produces thyroglobulin

Front 203

glycoprotein secreted by follicles

Back 203

thyroglobulin

Front 204

substance that contains thyroglobulin attached to iodine atoms

Back 204

colloid

Front 205

______ cells: produce calcitonin found in follicular epithelium

Back 205

parafollicular

Front 206

what are the two components of the thyroid hormone

Back 206

T3- triiodothyroxine

T4 - thyroxine

Front 207

how do thyroid hormones function

Back 207

enters target cell, binds to nucleus to initiate transcription of mRNA for protein synthesis

Front 208

what are the functions of thyroid hormone

Back 208

maintain blood pressure

increases basal metabolic rate

regulates tissue growth

Front 209

know the basic process to synthesize thyroxine

Back 209

1. thyroglobulin synthesized and discharged into follicile lumen

2. iodine actively transported into cell and oxidized to iodine

3. attached to tyrosine in colloid and forms DIT and MIT

4. iodinated tyrosines are linked together to form T3 and T4

5. thyroglobulin is endocytosed and combined with lysosome

6. lysosomal enzymes cleave T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin and diffused in bloodstream

Front 210

what is the negative feedback mechanism to control regulation of thyroid hormone

Back 210

falling TH levels trigger release of TSH which inhibits hypothalamic anterior pituitary axis which temporarily shuts off TSH release stimulus

Front 211

what are the secretory cells of the parathyroid gland and what is the stimulus

Back 211

parathyroid cells - falling Ca2+ levels causes PTH secretion

Front 212

what are the functions of PTH

Back 212

stimulates osteoclasts to digest bony matrix

enhances resorption of Ca2+

promotes activation of vitamin D

Front 213

fxn of adrenal hormones

Back 213

regulate electrolyte concentration in extracellular fluid

Front 214

what are the 3 zones of adrenal cortex and what corticosteroid

Back 214

zona glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids

zona fasciculata - glucocorticoids

zona reticularis - gonadocorticoids

Front 215

what is the function of mineralcorticoids and what are the most important

Back 215

regulate electrolyte concentration

Na+ and K+

Front 216

what is the electrolyte responsible for establishing resting membrane potential

Back 216

K+

Front 217

target organ for aldosterone and mech of activity

Back 217

kidney tubules - stimulates resorption of Na+ and water retention by elimination of K+

Front 218

what triffers secretion of aldosterone

Back 218

low BP

Low blood vol

increased K+

Front 219

what triggers inhibition of aldosterone

Back 219

increased BP

increased blood vol

decreased K+

Front 220

what are the four mechanisms to regulate aldosterone production

Back 220

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone

plasma conc. of potassium

ACTH

Atrial Natiuretic peptide

Front 221

what does renin-angiotensin-aldosterone do?

Back 221

regulates the release of aldosterone

Front 222

how does plasma concentration of potassium affect aldosterone secretion

Back 222

influences the zone glomerulosa cells in the adrenal cortex

Front 223

how does ACTH affect aldosterone secretion

Back 223

hypothalamus secretes more CRN which increases the rate of aldosterone

Front 224

how does atrial natiuretic peptide affect aldosterone secretion

Back 224

ANP is secreted by heard which inhibits renin-angiotensin mechanism and blocks renin and aldosterone secretion

Front 225

what are the general functions of glucocorticoids and identify the most important

Back 225

energy metabolism in cells, reduce stressors

cortisol

Front 226

what is the prime metabolic effect of cortisol

Back 226

provoke gluconeogenisis --> formation of glucose from fats and proteins

Front 227

what are the effects of excessive levels of glucocorticoids

Back 227

Cushings syndrome - ACTH pituitary tumor

Front 228

state the general functions of the gonadocorticoids

Back 228

-axillary and pubic hair

-sex drive

-menopause

Front 229

identify the secretory cells of the adrenal medulla and their products

Back 229

medullary chromaffin cells - synthesize catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

Front 230

how are medullary chromaffin cells stimulated and what are the effects of the products

Back 230

stimulated by preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system

increases the heart rate and metabolic rate, increases BP and leads to hypertension

Front 231

identify the secretory cells of the pineal gland and the hormone synthesized for secreation

Back 231

pinealocytes - melatonin

Front 232

identify the key sensation to stimulate the pineal gland

Back 232

suprachiasmic nucleus - "biological clock"

Front 233

identify the location of melatonin receptors and the function of the organ

Back 233

hands from the roof of the third ventricle in diencephalon

regulates body temp, sleep, and appetite

Front 234

why is the pancreas considered a mixed gland

Back 234

composed of both endocrine and exocrine gland

Front 235

identify the pancreatic cells functioning as exocrine glands

Back 235

acinar cells

Front 236

identify the pancreatic cells functioning as endocrine glands and their associated hormones

Back 236

pancreatic islets - alpha and beta cells

glucagon and insulin

Front 237

identify the major target of glucagon and the actions it promotes

Back 237

regulating blood glucose levels

target = liver

Front 238

identify stimulants of glucagon secretion

Back 238

stimulated by sympathetic nervous system and rising amino acid levels

Front 239

state 3 ways in which insulin reduces blood glucose levels

Back 239

-glycogenolysis

-gluconeogenisis

-release of glucose to blood by liver cells

Front 240

identify the enzymatic activities triggered when insulin enters a cell

Back 240

- enhances membrane transport of gluose into body cells (muscle and fat)

-inhibits breakdown of glycogen to glucose

-inhibits conversion of amino acids to glucose

Front 241

identify the stimulus of insulin secretion

Back 241

elevated blood glucose levels

Front 242

identify the hormones produced by the ovaries and state their functions

Back 242

estrogen - produce eggs, maturation of reproductive organs and puberty

progesterone - breast development

Front 243

identify the hormones produced by the testes and their functions

Back 243

testosterone - maturation, sex drive, and secondary sex characteristics

Front 244

when is the placenta a temporary endocrine organ?

Back 244

secretes steroid and protein hormone - estrogens and progesterone - and human chronic gonadotropin

Front 245

identify a hormone produced by the heart and state its function

Back 245

atrial natriuretic peptide - decreases the amount of Na+ in fluid - decreases blood volume and blood pressure

Front 246

identify the hormone secreting cells of the GI tract, the hormones produced, and their general function

Back 246

enteroendocrine - release peptide hormones

gastrin - stimulates HCl production

ghrelin - stimulates food intake and GH release

secretin - stimulates release of enzyme-rich juice from the pancreas

Front 247

identify the secretory cells from the kidney, the hormone produced and its function

Back 247

erythropoietin - red blood cell production

Front 248

identify hormones synthesized in the skin and state their functions

Back 248

cholecalciferol - stimulates active transport of calcium across the membrane in the small intestine

Front 249

identify hormones synthesized in adipose tissue and state their functions

Back 249

leptin - supresses appetite, increases energy expenditure

resistin - antagonizes insulin

adiponectin - enhances sensitivity to insulin

Front 250

identify hormones synthesized by skeletal osteoblasts and state their functions

Back 250

osteocalcin - promoted by insulin - increases production and sensitivity of insulin

Front 251

identify the families of hormones synthesized by the thymus and state their general functions

Back 251

thymulin, thymopoietins, thymosins - all local paracrines involved in T-lymphocyte development and immune response

Front 252

________: hypersecretion of growth hormone in children - targets still active epiphyseal plate; abnormally tall

Back 252

gigantism

Front 253

________: excessive growth hormone secreted after epiphyseal plates closed "enlarged extremities" - overgrown bony areas

Back 253

acromegaly

Front 254

_____: growth hormone deficiency in children - slows long bone growth

Back 254

pituitary dwarfism

Front 255

______: ADH deficiency - intense thirst and large urine output caused by damage to the hypothalamus or posterior pituitary

Back 255

diabetes insipidus

Front 256

_______: underactivity of the thyroid gland - low metabolic rate, feeling chilled, thick dried skin, edema

Back 256

myxedema

Front 257

_____: enlarged protruding thyroid gland from lack of iodine

Back 257

endemic goiter

Front 258

_______ severe hypothyroidism in infants - mentally retarded; short, disprportionately sized body - thick tongue and neck

Back 258

cretinism

Front 259

_________: autoimmune condition - person makes abnormal antibodies against thyroid follicular cells

Back 259

graves disease

Front 260

_______: parathyroid gland tumor - calcium is leeched from bones

Back 260

hyperparathyroidism

Front 261

________: ACTH-releasing malignancy of lungs, pancreas, kidneys

Back 261

cushings syndrome

Front 262

__________: hyposecretion of adrenal cortex - deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Back 262

addisons disease

Front 263

_______: absent insulin

Back 263

diabetes type 1

Front 264

__________: insulin present but deficient

Back 264

diabetes type 2

Front 265

brief overview of blood circulation

Back 265

initiated by pumping action of heart

blood exits heart via arteries which branch into tiny capillaries

diffustion of O2 and nutrients into body tissues

CO2 and wastes leave tissues into blood stream

O2 deficient blood leaves via veins back to the heat to the lungs and back to the heart

Front 266

properties of blood that qualify as a tissue using formed elements and plasma

Back 266

plasma = 55%

buffy coat = leukocytes and platelets

erythrocytes = 45%

proteins

Front 267

fxn of erythrocytes

Back 267

RBC's transport O2 in the blood

Front 268

what is hematocrit and what are the averages male/female

Back 268

percentage of RBS's in the blood

males 47% +/- 5%

females 42% +/- 5%

Front 269

what is the function of leukocytes

Back 269

protect the body from foreign substances

Front 270

what is the fxn of platelets

Back 270

help stop bleeding

Front 271

blood = ______% of body weight

Back 271

8

Front 272

what is the normal blood volume for an adult female/male

Back 272

female = 4-5L

male = 5-6L

Front 273

what are the 3 distribution functions of blood

Back 273

- delivering O2 and nutrients to body cells

-eliminating waste

-transporting hormones from endocrine organs to their target organ

Front 274

state the 3 regulatory functions of blood

Back 274

-maintaining appropriate body temp

-maintain normal pH in body tissues

-maintain adequate fluid volume in circulatory system

Front 275

state the 2 protective functions of blood

Back 275

-prevent blood loss via clotting

-prevent infection via antibodies

Front 276

key solutes found in plasma and the relative abundance

Back 276

water = 90%

electrolytes = Na+, K, Ca2+, Mg2+, P, S, H2CO3

Plasma proteins (8%)

nutrients = glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids

respiratory gasses - O2, CO2, H2CO3

hormones - steroid and thyroid

Front 277

what are the plasma proteins and where are they made

Back 277

albumin - liver (60%) - carrier in blood buffer; contributes to osmotic pressure that keeps H2O in the blood stream

globulins - liver (36%) - alpha and beta transport proteins that bind to lipids, metal ions, and fat soluble ions

gamma releases antibodies during immune response

fibrinogen - liver fxns in blood clotting (4%) - forms fibrin threads of blood clot

Front 278

identify the three formed elements of blood

Back 278

erythrocytes

leukocytes

platelets

Front 279

known the 3 structural characteristics that contribute to Red Blood Cell function

Back 279

- biconcave shape - provide surface area relative to volume - suited for gas exchange

-discounting H20 content -> 97% hemoglobin binds respiratory gases

-dont consume any O2 carried b/c generate ATP themselves

Front 280

normal values for adult male/females for hemoglobin

Back 280

males = 13-18grams per 100mL of blood

females = 12-16grams

Front 281

what is hematopoiesis and where does it take place in adults

Back 281

blood cell formation

occurs in red blood marrow within blood sinudoids

in axial skeleton bones and girdles, proximal epiphysis of humerus and femur

Front 282

what is the average daily production of blood

Back 282

an ounce

Front 283

explain the negative feedback mechanism of erythrocyte homeostasis

Back 283

caused by decreased RBC, Hb, and O2 - erythropoeitin stimulates formation of erythrocytes via bone marrow released by the kidney and liver which increases O2 carrying.

Front 284

dietary requirements of erythrocyte formation

Back 284

iron

Front 285

what is that average life span of an erythrocyte and what happens to dying cells

Back 285

100-120 days - they are degraded and leaves body in feces

Front 286

condition in which the blood O2 carrying capacity is too low to support normal metabolism

Back 286

anemia

Front 287

what causes hemmorrhagic anemia

Back 287

trauma - acute blood loss

Front 288

what causes iron deficiency anemia

Back 288

not enough red blood cells produced

Front 289

what causes pernicious anemia

Back 289

autoimmune disease that destroys own rbcs

Front 290

what is renal anemia

Back 290

lack of EPO

Front 291

what is aplastic anemia

Back 291

destruction of red bone marrow

Front 292

what causes hemolytic anemia

Back 292

erythrocytes rupture

Front 293

what causes thalassemia

Back 293

absent globin chains in rbcs

Front 294

what causes sickle cell anemia

Back 294

crescent shaped rbcs

caused by a mutation in DNA

Front 295

what is polycythemia and common causes

Back 295

abnormal excess of erythrocytes that increases blood viscosity causing it to flow sluggishly

Front 296

mechanism where leukocytes move out of capillary vessels to transport

Back 296

diapedesis

Front 297

what is amoeboid motion

Back 297

form flowing cytoplasmic extensions that move leukocytes along

Front 298

mechanism that pinpoints areas of tissue damage and gather in large numbers to destroy foreign substances

Back 298

positive chemotaxis

Front 299

identify the 5 leukocytes and in order of relevant abundance

Back 299

neutrophils

lympocytes

monocytes

eoisinophils

basophils

Front 300

name the 3 granulocytes

Back 300

neutrophils

basophils

eosinophils

Front 301

what is the specific function of neutrophils

Back 301

bacteria slayers - numbers increase during acute bacterial infections

Front 302

what is the specific function of basophils

Back 302

vasodilator due to inflammation- chemical attractcs WBC to infected site

Front 303

what is the specific functions of eosinophils

Back 303

digest bacteria - counter attack against parasitic worms too large to be phagocitized

Front 304

name and state the function of the agranulocytes

Back 304

lymphocytes

-Tcells - immune attack virus infected and tumor cells

-Bcells - plasma cells that produce antibodies released in the blood

monocytes - macrophages - defense against viruses

Front 305

what are the chemical signals that stimulate leukopoesis

Back 305

interleukins and colony stimulating factors

stimulate granulocyte production and promp WBC to mature and enhance protective property

Front 306

what leukocyte differentiates from lymphoid stem cells

Back 306

lymphocytes

Front 307

what is leucopenia and what are the common causes

Back 307

abnormally low WBC count - commonly induced by drugs particularly glucocorticoids and anticancer agents

Front 308

what is leukemia and what are the 2 basic types and cell of origin

Back 308

cancerous condition that involves the production of abnormal white blood cells

-myeloid leukemia - myeloblast decendants

-lymphocyte leukemia - lympocyte decendants

Front 309

what is the hormone that regulates platelet formation and the target cell

Back 309

thrombopoitin

megakaryocyte

Front 310

mechanism that stops bleeding

Back 310

hemostaisis

Front 311

what are the 3 steps of hemostasis

Back 311

1. vascular spasm

2. platelet plug formation

3. coagulation - blood clotting

Front 312

what is the purpose of step 1 of hemostasis

Back 312

vasoconstriction - constrict blood vessels

Front 313

what blood chemicals are needed for step 3 of hemostasis

Back 313

clotting factors/precoagulants

plasma proteins

Front 314

why are Ca2+ and K+ important in hemostasis

Back 314

Ca2+ needed in coagulation

K+ synthesizes clotting factors

Front 315

what are the 3 phases of coagulation

Back 315

1. two pathways to prothrobin activator

2. common pathway to thrombin

3. common pathway to fibrin mesh

Front 316

what is the goal of phase 1 of blood coagulation

Back 316

formation of prothrombin activator

Front 317

compare/contrast intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of blood coagulation

Back 317

intrinsic

-factors needed for clotting found w/in blood

-triggered by negatively charged surfaces- platelets, collagen

-slue due to many steps

extrinsic

-factors needed for clotting found outside of blood

-triggered by exposing blood to damaged endothelium

-fast - bypasses a lot of steps for intrinsic

Front 318

what is the goal for phase 2 of blood coagulation

Back 318

prothrombin activator catalyzes the conversion of prothrombin into active enzyme - thrombin

Front 319

what is the goal of phase 3 of blood coagulation

Back 319

clot formation

Front 320

what is the importance of clot reaction

Back 320

further stabilizes the clot, platelets contrat and squeeze serum from mass -> compacts the clot and draws the edges together

Front 321

what is the importance of fibrinolysis and key molecules involved

Back 321

removes unneeded clots when healing occurs

plasmin circulates enzymes to burst clot

Front 322

identify 2 homeostatic mechanisms that prevent clots from becoming too large

Back 322

1. swift removal of clotting factors

2. inhibition of activated clotting factors

Front 323

how does antithrombin III prevents clots from becoming too large

Back 323

inactivates any thrombin not bound to fibrin - inhibits the intrinsic pathway

Front 324

what is the natural anticoagulant and state how it prevents clots from becoming too large

Back 324

heparin - contained in basophil and mast cell granules inhibits thrombin by enhancing antithrombin III activity inhibits intrinsic pathway

Front 325

what are the key factors for preventing undesirable clotting

Back 325

-endothelium smooth and intact

-antithrombic substances, nitric oxide and prostacyclin prevent platelet adhesion

-vitamin E quinone - potent anticoagulant

Front 326

what is a thromboembolic disorder of hemostasis

Back 326

causes undesirable clot formation

Front 327

______ = clot that develops and persists in unbroken blood vessel

Back 327

thrombus

Front 328

_______ = thrombus breaks away and floats freely in bloodstream

Back 328

embolus

Front 329

______ = emolus obstructing a blood vessel

Back 329

embolism

Front 330

________ = bleeding disorder where there is a deficient number of circulating platelets that causes spontaneous bleeding from small blood vessels

Back 330

thrombocytopenia

Front 331

what deficiency causes impaired liver function

Back 331

vitamin K

Front 332

________ = deficiency of factor VIII (anti-hemophilic factor)

Back 332

hemophilias

Front 333

_______ = anything the body sees as foreign and generates an immune response

Back 333

antigen

Front 334

identify the two groups of antigens that cause vigorous transfusion reactions

Back 334

A & B

Front 335

know the ABO blood groups by surface agglutinogen

Back 335

A - anti A

B - anti B

AB - anti A and anti B

O - Neither - no agglutination

Front 336

identify possible donors for each ABO blood type

Back 336

AB - universal recipient

B - B and O

A - A and O

O - only O

Front 337

what is the hemolytic disease of the newborn and is it preventable?

Back 337

Rh- mother and Rh+ baby - antibodies will cross through placenta and destroy baby RBC's cause the baby to be anemic and hypoxic

Can be prevented by a transfusion before birth

Front 338

what are the 2 major events in a transfusion reaction and what are the consequences

Back 338

1. agglutination of foreign RBC's clogs blood vessels

2. Clumped cells begin to rupture/destroyed by phagocytes

Consequences:

1. transfused blood cells can't transport O2

2. clumped cells hinder blood flow to tissues

Front 339

state the function of the lymphatic system and identify the componentsreturn

Back 339

fluids that have leaked from the blood vascular system back to the blood

-lymphatic vessels

-lymph fluid

-lymph nodes

Front 340

name the lymphoid organs

Back 340

-spleen

-thymus

-tonsils

-lymph nodes

Front 341

identify the lymphatic vessels from smallest to largest

Back 341

lymphatic capillaries

lymphatic vessels

Front 342

what are two structural modifications that make lymphatic capillaries highly permeable

Back 342

1. endothelial cells forming the walls are not tightly joined - they are easily opened "mini-valves"

2. collagen filaments anchor the endothelial cells to surrounding structures so that any increase in interstitial fluid volume opens the mini-valves

Front 343

describe lacteals - know specific location and function

what is chyle

Back 343

A special set of lymphatic capillaries that transport absorbed fat from small intestine into the blood stream

chyle - fatty lymph that drains from intestines

Front 344

describe the lymphatic collecting vessels, how they differ from blood veins

Back 344

have thinner walls and more internal valves

lymphatics in the skin travel along with superficial veins

Front 345

what are the drain fields for the lymphatic trunks and name them

Back 345

largest collecting vessels unite to form trunks - travel with deep arteries; drain large areas of the body

-lumbar

-bronchomediastinal

-subclavian

-jugular

-intestinal

Front 346

name the two large lymphatic ducts in thoracic cavity and know the collection area

Back 346

right lymphatic duct - drains lymph from the right upper limb and right side of head an thorax

larger thoracic duct - drains lymph from the rest of the body -> L side of the thorax, L upper limb and L side of head

Front 347

identify the methods by which lymph is transported through the system

Back 347

- return excess tissue fluid to bloodstream

-return leaked proteins to the blood

- carry absorbed fat from the intestine to the blood (through lacteals)

Front 348

what are two main varieties of lymphocytes and state their functions

Back 348

T- cells = manage immune response and directly attack and destroy infected cells

B - cells = protect the body by producing plasma cells that secrete antibodies into the blood which make antigens for destruction by phagocytes

Front 349

identify the lymphoid cells other than T and B cells

Back 349

macrophages - protection and immune response -> directly attack and destroy infected cells

dendritic cells - activate Tcells and capture antigens that bring them back to the lymph nodes

reticular fibers - fibroblast-like cells that produce stroma = network that supports other cell types in lymphoid organs and tissues

Front 350

state two reasons lymphoid tissue is considered part of the immune system

Back 350

1. Houses and provides a proliferation site for lymphocytes

2. furnishes an ideal surveilance vantage point for lymphocytes and macrophages

Front 351

what is the type of connective tissue found in most lymphoid tissues

Back 351

reticular connective

exception = thymus

Front 352

how are lymphoid tissues organized

Back 352

huge numbers of lymphocytes squeeze through walls of postcapillary venules. they leave to patrol body again and cycles btw circulatory vessles, lymphoid tissues and loose conn. tissue. Body ensures lymphocytes reach infected or damaged sites quickly

Front 353

identify the principal lymphoid organ and state the functions

Back 353

lymph nodes

1. filtration - filters lymph before its transferred to blood stream

2. immune system activation - attack antigens

Front 354

______= dense, fibrous casing = trabeculae extend from and create compartments

Back 354

lymph node capsule

Front 355

_______: contains densly packed follicles, many with gernimal centrers and heavy with dividing B cells

Back 355

lymph node cortex

Front 356

_______:inward extensions from cortical tissues - contain body types of lymph nodes

Back 356

medullary cords

Front 357

__________: large lymph capillaries spanned by criscrossing reticular fibers - house macrophages that phagocitize

Back 357

lymph sinuses

Front 358

_________ = 2nd area of lymph travel into smaller sinuses that enter medulla through medullary sinuses

Back 358

subcapsular sinus

Front 359

description of spleen and its location

Back 359

largest lymphoid organ

site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune survaliance and response

*blood cleansing*

Front 360

_________= where worn out RBCs and bloodborne pathogens are destroyed; contains lots of erythrocytes and macrophages

Back 360

red pulp

Front 361

_______ = immune functions take place - mostly lymphocytes on reticular fibers; forms cuffs around central arteries

Back 361

white pulp

Front 362

________ = enter/exit site of blood through spleen

Back 362

hilum

Front 363

_________ = surrounds spleen, has trabeculae that extend inward

Back 363

fibrous capsule

Front 364

________ = forms the exit to the hilum

Back 364

central artery

Front 365

_____= regions of reticular conn tissue that separate the blood filled splenic sinusoids

Back 365

splenic cords

Front 366

identify 3 splenic functions

Back 366

1. stores some of the breakdown products of RBC's for later use

2. stores blood platelets and monocytes for release into blood when needed

3. site of RBC production in fetus

Front 367

what is the primary function of thymus

Back 367

t-lymphocytes become able to defend us against specific pathogens in immune response

Front 368

how do the morphological changes of the thymus throughout life impact its function

Back 368

highly active during 1st year of life - after puberty it atrophies gradually, by old age it is replaced by fatty tissue and fibrous tissue

- continues to produces immunocompetent cells but just at a declining rate

Front 369

identify three important differences between the thymus and other lymphoid organs

Back 369

1. No follicles b/c it lacks B cells

2. only lymphoid organ to not directly fight antigens; maturation site for T-lymph

3. The stroma of the thymus consists of epithelial cells (provide environment needed for Tlymphocyte maturity) rather than reticular fibers

Front 370

The ______ of the thymus houses the thymic corpuscles that are involved in the development of _____ cells

Back 370

medulla

Treg cells

Front 371

_________ - keeps bloodborne antigens out of the thymus

Back 371

blood thymus barrier

Front 372

identify the lymphoid tissues that are considered MALT

Back 372

tonsils

peyers patches

appendix

Front 373

name the 4 tonsils and their specific location

Back 373

palantine - posterior end of oral cavity - largest and most infected

lingual - lumpy collection of lymphoid follicles at the base of the tongue

pharyngeal (adenoids) - posterior wall of nasopharynx

tubal - surround openings of auditory tube into the pharynx

Front 374

state the function of tonsils

Back 374

gather and remove many pathogens entering the pharynx in food and air

Front 375

describe structure of tonsils and know the significance of tonsillar crypts

Back 375

contain follicles with germinal centers surrounded by lymphocytes

not fully encapsulated epithelium covering forms tonsillar crypts that block bacteria and matter

Front 376

what are peyers patches and where are they located

Back 376

aggregated lymphoid nodules - located in the wall of distal portion of small intestine

Front 377

state the functions of peyers patches and appendix

Back 377

1. destroy bacteria before pathogens can breach intestinal wall

2. generate memory lymphocytes fr long term immunity

Front 378

__________ = tubular offshoot of large intestine with high conc of lymphoid follicles

Back 378

appendix

Front 379

identify the two intrinsic systems and the differences

Back 379

innate defense system - protect from all foreign substances - external body membranes, intact skin and mucosae; internal antimicrobial proteins and phagocytes

adaptive defense system - attack particular foreign substances - takes more time; humoral (B cells) and cellular immunity (T cells)

Front 380

Identify protective chemicals secreted by epithelial membranes

Back 380

Acid mantle - skin, vagina, stomach - inhibits bacteria growth

lysozyme - saliva, respiratory mucus, eye - destroys bacteria

mucin - traps microorganisms

sebum/dermicidin - eccerine sweat, toxic to bacteria

Front 381

know the secretions of the respiratory mucosa and fxn

Back 381

secrete defensins - antimicrobial peptides - increasees rapidly in response to inflammation - control bacterial and fungal colonization

Front 382

how are internal innate defenses triggered

Back 382

respiratory tract mucosa have tiny mucous coated hair inside the nose that trap inhaled particles

cilia on mucus prevent bacteria from lower respiratory passage

internal innate defenses can be triggered by shaving and brushing teeth

Front 383

identify the cells and chemicals of the internal innate defenses

Back 383

-phagocytes

-natural killer cells

-antimicrobial proteins

-fever

-microphages

-mast cells

-WBCs

Front 384

_______ = membrane lined vesicle that encloses bacteria

Back 384

phagosome

Front 385

_________ = phagosome fused with lysozyme

Back 385

phagolysosome

Front 386

_________ = pathogen coated with opsonins (antibodies) that accelerated phagocytosis

Back 386

opsonization

Front 387

_____ = when Tcells release chemicals that stimulate macrophage and activates additional enzymes that promotes bursting/killing of pathogens

Back 387

respiratory burst

Front 388

_________ police the body in blood and lymph - lyse and kill cancer and virus infected body cells before adaptive immune system is activated

Back 388

NK cells_

Front 389

how are NK cells different from other lymphocytes?

Back 389

are non-specific and directly kill by inducing apoptosis

lymphocytes are specific

Front 390

what are the triggers of the inflammatory response

Back 390

physical trauma

intense heat

irritating chemicals

infection by virus, fungi, bacteria

Front 391

3 beneficial functions of inflammation

Back 391

1. prevents spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues

2. disposes of cell debris and pathogens

3. alters the adaptive immune system

Front 392

4 cardinal signs of inflammation

Back 392

redness

heat

swelling

pain

Front 393

__________ = membrane receptors that recognize invaders and sound chemical alarm that triggers release of cytokines

Back 393

toll-like receptors

Front 394

_______ = inflammatory chemicals triggered by toll-like receptrs

Back 394

cytokines

Front 395

_______ = cells that release histamine in response to injured tissue/immune cells

Back 395

mast cells

Front 396

_______ = potent inflammatory chemical released by mast cells

Back 396

histamine

Front 397

fxn of kinins

Back 397

-induce chemotaxis of leukocytes

-prompt neutrophils to release lysozymes

-induce pain

Front 398

what 3 things dilates local anterioles and make local capillaries leak more

Back 398

kinins, prostaglandins and complement

Front 399

-_______ = fatty acid in cell membrane generated by neutrophils, basophils, and mast cells that induce neutrophil chemoxtaxis and pain

Back 399

prostaglandins

Front 400

________ = signaling chemicals that mediate inflammation and allergic reactions

Back 400

leukotrienes

Front 401

________ = bloodborne proteins that lyse microorganisms, enhance phagocytosis by opsonization

Back 401

complement proteins

Front 402

_______ = congestion with blood that occurs when local arterioles dilate; causes redness and heat of inflammed region

Back 402

hyperemia

Front 403

_______ = fluid containing clotting factors and antibodies seeps from blood into tissue space; causes local swelling (edema) and sense of pain

Back 403

exudate

Front 404

what is the first leukocyte involved in phagocyte mobilizaton

Back 404

neutrophils

Front 405

4 steps of phagocyte mobilization

Back 405

1. leukocytosis

2. margination

3. diapedesis

4. chemotaxis

Front 406

______ = neutrophils enter from red bone marrow and increases the number of neutrophils and WBC's

Back 406

leukocytosis

Front 407

_______ = inflammed endothelial cells sprout cell adhesion molecules and pinpoint the inflammed area

Back 407

margination

Front 408

________ = prompts neutrophils to squeeze through endothelial cells of capillary walls

Back 408

diapedesis

Front 409

_______ = WBC's migrate to site of inflammation response and destroy foreign material

Back 409

chemotaxis

Front 410

two most important antimicrobial proteins

Back 410

interferons

complement protiens

Front 411

_______ = proteins released by virus infected ells and lymphocytes that act as chemical messengers to protect uninfected tissue cells from viral take over

Back 411

interferons

Front 412

two ways by which complement can be activated

Back 412

1. classical pathway: antibodies fight off invaders

2. lectin pathway: recognize foreign invaders and bind to activate complement

Front 413

explain how complement fixation causes lysis of target cells

Back 413

several antibodies bind close together on same cell and triggers cell lysis - amplifies inflammation response and promotes phagocytosis via opsonization

Front 414

________ = protein the creates a hole in membrane of cell and allows an influx of H2O --> lyses cell

Back 414

MAC - membrane attack complex

Front 415

________ = abnormally high body temperature due to a localized response to infection

Back 415

fever

Front 416

how is a fever triggered

Back 416

leukocytes and macrophages exposed to foreign substances release pyrogens that act on the bodies thermostat

Front 417

how is fever protective

Back 417

-causes liver and spleen to sequester iron and zinc --> less able to support bacterial growth

- increase metabolic rate of tissue cells -> speeding repair response

Front 418

why is fever dangerous

Back 418

denatures proteins and depresses neurons that can cause convulsions

Front 419

innate vs adaptive immune system

Back 419

innate - always ready to respond

adaptive - must be prepped by an initial exposure to antigen

Front 420

3 most important aspects of the adaptive system

Back 420

1. it is specific - particular pathogens

2. systemic - not restricted to initial infected site

2. memory - mounts stronger attacks on previous encountered pathogens

Front 421

two arms of adaptive immunity and fxn

Back 421

- humoral immunity - antibody mediated provided by lymphocyes that bind to foreign materials

-cellular immunity- cellular targets: virus/parasite infected cells/cancer cells directly kill cells

Front 422

2 functional properties of complete antigens

Back 422

immunogenicity - stimulate specific lymphocytes to multiply

reactivity - react with the activated lymphocytes and antibodies released

Front 423

example of complete antigens

Back 423

large polysacchariddes

lipids

nucleic acids

bacteria

fungi

Front 424

_______ small molecules that link up with bodies own proteins so adaptive immune system recognizes combination as foreign and mounts harmful attack

Back 424

incomplete antigens

Front 425

_______ = antigenic to other individuals, contain a group of glycoproteins called MHC and Tlyphocytes can only bind antigens present on those proteins

Back 425

self-antigens

Front 426

3 crucial cell types of the adaptive immune system

Back 426

1. B lymphocytes

2. T lymphocytes

3. APC's

Front 427

________ = cells that oversee humoral immunity

Back 427

B cells

Front 428

_______ = nonantibody producing lymphocytes that constitute agaptice immunity

Back 428

Tlymphocytes

Front 429

5 general steps of development, maturation and activation of lymphocytes

Back 429

origin

maturation

seeding secondary lymph organs

antigen encounter and activation

proliferation and differentiation

Front 430

what is the aim of the maturation process

Back 430

-immunocompetence - ale to recognize its antigen by binding to it

-self-tolerance - unresponsive to self-antigens so it doesn't attack the bodies own cells

Front 431

identify the primary lymphoid organs where lymphocytes mature

what is their status upon exit

Back 431

thymus and bone marrow - become immunocompetent

naive

Front 432

________ selection: ensures that only T cells are able to recognize self MHC proteins

Back 432

positive

Front 433

______ selection: Tcells do not recognize self-antigens displayed on self MHC

Back 433

negative

Front 434

now is B cell maturation different from Tcell

Back 434

occurs in red bone marrow instead of thymus

successful in making antigen recepters - they are self reactive or eliminated

Front 435

how is receptor diversity created in lymphocytes

Back 435

genes determine which specific foreign substances our immune system recognizes/resists

Front 436

what is the major role of antigen-presenting cells

Back 436

engulf antigens and present fragments on surfaces where T-cells can recognize them

Front 437

what are the major types of APCs

Back 437

dendritic cells

macrophages

B lymphocytes

Front 438

what is the effect of antigen presentation to T cells

Back 438

can only be activated by antigens presented to them on MHC proteins by APC's

Front 439

how are lymphocytes emigated to the correct location

Back 439

dendritic cells engulf, and travel via lymph to lymph node to present antigens to T-cells

Front 440

what is the most effective APC

Back 440

dendritic cells

Front 441

response of B cell lymphocytes to the antigen challenge

Back 441

humoral immune response - antibodies specific for that antigen are made

Front 442

fate of most clones

Back 442

proliferation into effector plasma cells

Front 443

what happens to the rest of clones that dont differentiate

Back 443

made into memory cells that cauese immediate humoral response if encounters same antigen

Front 444

primary vs. secondary immune response

Back 444

primary - 1st exposure; 3-6 days for B cells to proliferate into plasma cells

secondary - faster, more effective immune system already memorized that antigen; 'immunological memory'

Front 445

two ways active humoral immunity is acquired

Back 445

1. naturally acquired via bacterial/viral infection - develop symptoms

2. artifically acquired - vaccines

Front 446

two benefits of vaccines

Back 446

- spare most of the symptoms/discomfort of disease

-weakened antigens provide functional antigenic determinants that are both immunogenic and reactive

Front 447

__________ immunity: ready made antibodies introduce to body, not made by plasma cells

ex. snake bites, rabies

Back 447

passive humoral

Front 448

_______ = gamma globulin part of blood; proteins secreted in response to an antigen by effector B cells and binds with antigen

Back 448

antibody

Front 449

basic structure of antibody monomer

Back 449

4 chains combined

T or Y shaped

Front 450

significance of variable region of antibody

Back 450

combine to antigen binding site to "fit" an antigenic determinant

Front 451

significance of stem constant region of antibody

Back 451

-determine antibody class

-dictate the cells and chemicals the antibody can bind to

-how the antibody class fxns to eliminate antigen

Front 452

_______ = pentamer secreted by plasma cells, readily fixes and activated compliment, receptor on B cell surface

Back 452

IgM

Front 453

______ dimer found in saliva, sweat, milk, instestines - stops pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells

Back 453

IgA

Front 454

_______ = monomer found on B cell surface that is a Bcell antigen receptor

Back 454

IgD

Front 455

______ = most abundant antibody in plasma - protects against bacteria, viruses, and toxinsi

Back 455

IgG

Front 456

_____ stem end binds to mast cells/basophils - triggers release of histamine - secreted by plasma cells in the skin mucous and GI, tonsils -

Back 456

IgE

Front 457

_____ antibody level rises during severe allergic reactions

Back 457

IgE

Front 458

4 methods by which antibodies inactivate antigens

Back 458

neutralization

agglutination

precipitation

complement fixation

Front 459

________ = antibodies block specific sites on viruses/bacteria

Back 459

neutralization

Front 460

_____ = antibodies bind to more than one binding site causing clumping

Back 460

agglutination

Front 461

_______ = antibodies caught in large complexes so phagocytes can capture

Back 461

precipitation

Front 462

______ = antibodies bind close together on same cell --> signals cell lysis

Back 462

complement fixation

Front 463

when are antibodies not effective

Back 463

certain viruses and tuberculosis bacilli --> adaptive immunity

Front 464

2 popular populations of cells that mediate cellular immunity

Back 464

CD4 and CD8

Front 465

_______ = cells that become Thelper cells and activate B, T cells and macrophages

Back 465

CD4

Front 466

______ cells = become cytotoxic T cells destroy any cells that hae foreign substances

Back 466

CD8

Front 467

cell differentiation glycoproteins function as receptors by

Back 467

interactions between Tells and other cells

Front 468

basic process for fragment presentation in MHC class I cells

Back 468

peptide fragments bind to MHC I proteins -> transport vesicles export cytotoxic T cells to come and kill

Front 469

basic process for fragment presentation in MHC class II cells

Back 469

bind to peptide fragments -> displayed by antigens outside of the cell and broken down by proteases inside a phagolysosome

Front 470

state the MHC restriction of CD4 cells for antigen binding

Back 470

usually become Thelper cells restricted to binding antigens only on class II MHC proteins which are displayed on antigen-presenting cells (APC surfaces)

Front 471

state the MHC restriction of CD8 cells for antigen binding

Back 471

usually become cytotoxic T cells;

restricted to binding antigens only on class II MHC proteins found on surface of APC's

Front 472

how do APCs comply with the CH8 restrictions for presentation of endogenous antigens

Back 472

MHC I display endogenous antigens --> obtained by dendritic cells and can obtain other cell antigens by engulfling infected cells or importing antigens through gap junctions with infected cell --> display on both MHC I and II

Front 473

what is the status of CD4 and CD8 cells that have successfully bound the antigen

Back 473

T cell antigen receptors (TCR)

Front 474

what are co-stimulatory signals and where are they located

Back 474

appear on APC surface in damaged tissues --> binds with t cell to be able to proliferate and form a clone

Front 475

what is the effect of co-stimulation

Back 475

crucial for tcell activation to be started and proliferate

Front 476

what is the importance of the 2-signal secuence (costimulation and antigen binding)

Back 476

required for clonal selection

Front 477

why do activated T cells have to be disposed after used

Back 477

produce a lot of inflammatory cytokines and may promote cancer

Front 478

fxns of IL1

Back 478

-secreted by activated macrophages

-promotes inflammation and T-cell activation

-causes fever

Front 479

fxns of IL2

Back 479

-secreted by Thelper

-stimulates B and T cell proliferation and T cell development

-NK cell activation

Front 480

name the two cytokines that are suppressor factors

Back 480

TGF-beta and IL-10

Front 481

Source and importance of T helper cells

Back 481

activated by APC presentation of antigen

Th cells actiate B and T cells and induce proliferation

recruit other immune responses

Front 482

role of Th cell in humoral immunity

Back 482

binds with B cell that has encountered its antigen and is displaying it

Thelp cell releases ILs as costimulatory signals to complete B cell activation

Front 483

role of Thelper cells in helping cell-mediated immunity

Back 483

Th cell binds to dendritic cell --> stimulates cell to express co-stimulatory molecules --> dendritic cell can activate the CD8 cell with help of IL2 secreted by Th cell

Front 484

Th____ = stimulates inflammation, activate macrophages and promotes differentiation of cytotoxic T cells

Back 484

1

Front 485

Th____ = defend against parasitic worms -> mobilize eosinophils to battlefield and activate immune responses that depend on B cells and antibody formation

Back 485

2

Front 486

Th_____ = link together adaptive and innate immunity by releasing an IL which promotes inflammation response against extracellular microbes

Back 486

17

Front 487

source and fxn of cytotoxic T cells

Back 487

-activated CD8 cells - attack and kill other cells

-search for recognized antigens

Front 488

targets of T(c) cells

Back 488

varus infected cells and tissue cells infected by bacteria or paracyes

foreign cells introduced into the body by blood transfusions or organ transplants

Front 489

mechanism of T(c) target cell killing using perforins and granzymes

Back 489

1. identifies foreign antigen on MHC I protein and binds tightly to target

2. T(c) releases perforin and granenzyme by granules via exocytosis

3. perforin inserts into membrane and polymerizes to form pores

4. granenzymes enter through pores and activate enzymes that trigger apoptosis

Front 490

besides perforin and granenzymes, whats another way T(c) cells can kill target cells

Back 490

NK cells look for lack of MHC 1 or presence of antibodies on target cells

Front 491

fxns of Tregs

Back 491

slows or stops activity of immune system - important in controlling autoimmune disesae

Front 492

4 major varieties of organ grafting

Back 492

autograft

isograft

allograft

xenograft

Front 493

_____= tissue transplanted from one body site to another in the same person

Back 493

autograft

Front 494

______= grafts donated to a patient by a genetically identical individual ex. twins

Back 494

isograft

Front 495

_______ = grafts transplanted from individuals who are not genetically identical but same species

Back 495

allografts

Front 496

_______ = taken from another animal species ex. baboon heart

Back 496

xenografts

Front 497

major steps to prevent rejection of transplant

Back 497

-ABO blood group

- MHC antigen match

- corticosteroid drugs to suppress inflammation

-antiproliferative drugs

-immunosuppressant drugs

Front 498

_______ = congenital or acquired condition that impairs the production/function of immune cells/certain molecules such as complement or antibodies

Back 498

immunodeficiency

Front 499

identify known mutations that result in Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Back 499

- marked deficit of B and T cells

- defective adenosine deaminase enzyme --> lethal to T cells

Front 500

what type of transplant is suitable for SCID

Back 500

hematopoetic stem cells

Front 501

target cell of HIV virus and control of cell

Back 501

T helper - eventually cannot make CD4 cells

Front 502

_______ = body produces antibodies and cytotoxic T cells that destroy its own tissues

Back 502

autoimmunity

Front 503

_______ = autoimmune disease that destroys myelin of white matter of the brain and spinal cord

Back 503

multiple sclerosis

Front 504

______ = disease that impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscle

Back 504

myasthenia gravis

Front 505

______ = disease that prompts thyroid gland to produce excessive amounts of thyroxine and causes eyeballs to protrude

Back 505

graves disease

Front 506

________ = disease that destroys pancreatic beta cells and results in a deficit of insulin and ability to use carbohydrates

Back 506

Type I diabetes

Front 507

______ = disease affecting the kidneys, heart and lungs causes glomerulonephritis loss of memory and painful arthritic

Back 507

systemic lupus erythematosus

Front 508

_______ = disease that damages kidneys filtration membrane and severely impairs liver function

Back 508

glomerulonephritis

Front 509

________ = disease the systemically destroys joints

Back 509

rheumatoid arthritis

Front 510

two possible triggers of autoimmune diseases

Back 510

1. foreign antigens resemble self antigens

2. new self antigens appear

Front 511

_______ = immune system that damages tissues as it fights off perceived threat

Back 511

hypersensitivities

Front 512

how are different types of hypersensitivity distinguished - give examples

Back 512

acute - allergie

subacute - caused by antibodies

Front 513

mechanism of immediate hypersensitivity

Back 513

allergen causes APC to digest and present to CD4 cells that differentiate into IL4 secreting TH2 cells

IL4 stimulates B cells to mature into IgE secreting plasma cells that spew out large amount of antibodies for that allergen

Front 514

mechanism for anaphylactic shock

Back 514

allergen directly enters blood and circulates rapidly through the body

Front 515

what happens during anaphylactic shock

Back 515

bronchioles constrick making it difficult to breath and sudden vasodilation and fluid loss may cause hypotensive shock and death

Front 516

what reverses anaphylactic shock

Back 516

epinephrine

Front 517

compare subacute hypersensitivity to immediate hypersensitivity

Back 517

subacute - caused by antibodies

immediate/acute - caused by allergens

Front 518

mechanism of cytotoxic type II reactions and when they might occur

Back 518

occur when antibodies bind to antigens on specific body cells and stimulate phagocytosis and complement mediated lysis of cellular antigens

may occur after tranfusion of mismatched blood

Front 519

mechanism of immune-complex type III hypersensitivity and know examples-

Back 519

large numbers of antigens cannot be cleared from particular area

-intense inflammation occurs and kills neutrophils and damages tissues

ex. farmers lung - inhaling moldy hay

glomerulonephritis caused by lupus

Front 520

mechanism of delayed hypersensitivity type IV and know example

Back 520

caused by T cells -> inflammation and tissue damage result from action of cytokine-activated macrophages and T(c) cells

ex. allergic contact dermititis (poison ivy, chemicals) diffuse through skin and attach to self proteins and the immune system perceives as foreign

Front 521

what is T3

Back 521

triiodothyronine

Front 522

what is T4

Back 522

thyroxine

Front 523

______ is released when triglycerides are added to adipocytes, and reduces appitite

Back 523

leptin

Front 524

where is epinephrine and norepinephrine released from

Back 524

sympathetic nervous system

Front 525

acinar cells secrete

Back 525

digestive juices

Front 526

erythropoeitin stiumulus, target and response

Back 526

low oxygen, hypoxia

red bone marrow

red blood cells

Front 527

_______ very often causes osteoporosis

Back 527

hyperparathyroidism

Front 528

what is largest lymphoid organ

Back 528

spleen

Front 529

_______ and ________ are released by the sympathetic nervous system

Back 529

epi and norepi

Front 530

ANP _________ blood pressure

Back 530

lowers

Front 531

three ways insulin reduces blood glucose levels

Back 531

-enhance membrane transport of glucose into body cells

-inhibit glycogenolysis

-inhibit conversion of amino acids and fat into glucose

Front 532

CCK secreted by, targets and response

Back 532

secreted by intestines

pancreas- release digestive juices

galbladder - release bile

Front 533

______ causes a release of insulin and inhibits glucagon release

Back 533

GIP

Front 534

cholecalciferol is changed into _______

Back 534

vitamin D (calcitrol)

Front 535

calcitrol also know as ______, regulates:

Back 535

Vit D

Ca2+ reabsorption from food

Front 536

______ causes WBC's to slow down

Back 536

margination

Front 537

why are monocytes the last to arrive during phagocyte mobilization

Back 537

takes time to differentiate into macrophages

Front 538

______ cause water to enter the cell and eventually causes cell lysis

Back 538

MAC

Front 539

fever is triggered by ______ in the hypothalamus

Back 539

pyrogens

Front 540

_______ antibody contributes to agglutination

Back 540

IgM

Front 541

interleukins secreted by B cells

Back 541

IL4 and IL5

Front 542

disease that destroys schwann cells

Back 542

myasthenia gravis

Front 543

draw negative feedback of GH

Back 543

DRAW

Front 544

draw negative feedback of TSH

Back 544

DRAW

Front 545

draw negative feedback of PTH

Back 545

DRAW

Front 546

draw negative feedback of Aldosterone

Back 546

DRAW

Front 547

draw chart that shows stress mechanism

Back 547

DRAW

Front 548

draw the insulin and glucagon negative feedback

Back 548

DRAW

Front 549

conversion of glycogen to glucose

Back 549

glycogenolysisc

Front 550

synthesis of glucose

Back 550

gluconeogenisis

Front 551

________ collects lymph from lumbar trunks that drain lower limbs and digestive

Back 551

cisterna chyli

Front 552

explain the circulation in lymph nodes

Back 552

-lymph enters convex side through afferent lymph vessels

-subcapsular sinus branches from cortex to medulla

-medullary sinuses

-exits node at the hilum on concave side via efferent lymph vessels

Front 553

types of innate defenses

Back 553

surface barriers

interna;

Front 554

types of adaptive defenses

Back 554

humoral

cellular

Front 555

humoral = _____ cells

Back 555

B

Front 556

cellular = ____ cells

Back 556

T

Front 557

what happens when arterioles dilate

Back 557

-local hyperemia (increased blood flow to area)

- heat and redness

- local increase in metabolic rate - promotes healing

Front 558

what happens with increased capillary permeability

Back 558

- leak fluid into tissues - exudate

-pain and swelling

Front 559

cells produce _________ to bind to viruses and block their reproduction

Back 559

interferons

Front 560

_____ antibody contributes to neutralization

Back 560

IgG

Front 561

______ antibody protects mucosal barriers

Back 561

IgA

Front 562

MHC ____ is displayed by ALL cells

Back 562

I

Front 563

MHC ____ is displayed only by APC's

Back 563

II

Front 564

MHC ____ is intracellular

Back 564

I

Front 565

MHC ____ is extracellular

Back 565

II

Front 566

MHC _____ is recognized by CD8 and Tc cells

Back 566

I

Front 567

MHC ____ is recognized by CD4 and Th cells

Back 567

II

Front 568

antigens must bind to ___________ before they can clone

Back 568

costimulatory molecules

Front 569

_________ = interferons and interleukins

Back 569

cytokines

Front 570

_______ is released by macrophages to stimulate T=cells

Back 570

IL1

Front 571

Humoral pathway and Th

Back 571

Th binds to B cell containing MHC II on surgace

Th releases interleukins as costimulatory to complete B cell activation

Front 572

cellular pathway and Th

Back 572

Th binds to dendritic cells

causes release of costimulatory (IL1 and IL2) which allows dendritic cell with IL2 can activate CD8

Front 573

dendritic cells cannot activate CD8 without the help of ______

Back 573

IL2

Front 574

explain hypersensitivity starting with antigen enters

Back 574

-antigen enters

-plasma cell produces IgE antibodies

-antibodies attach to mast cells

- antigen combines with mast cell & antibody complex

-degranulation and release of histamine

-causes blood vessel dilation and leaky capillaries

Front 575

compare the structure of T3 and T4

Back 575

both are two linked tyrosine amino acids

T4 has 4 bound iodine atoms

T3 has 3

Front 576

TGF-Beta stimulates (2):

Back 576

Treg and Th17 development

Front 577

the ______ pituitary ONLY stores hormones

Back 577

posterior

Front 578

name an organ with both neural and endocrine functions

Back 578

hypothalamus

Front 579

list the major endocrine glands

Back 579

pituitary

thyroid

parathyroid

pineal

adrenal

Front 580

two organs that produce both hormones and exocrine products

Back 580

pancreas

gonads

Front 581

name three major catecholamines

Back 581

epi

norepi

dopamine

Front 582

what does cAMP do?

Back 582

activates protein kinases

Front 583

name 4 ways hormones are removed from the blood

Back 583

enzymes

kidneys

liver

halflife

Front 584

give an example of antagonism

Back 584

insulin and glucose

Front 585

protein receptors for which hormones are located on the plasma membrane

Back 585

peptides

catecholamines

Front 586

name 6 tissues/organs that produce hormones

Back 586

adipose tissue

thymus gland

small intestine

stomach

kidneys

heart

Front 587

all amino hormones are derived from:

Back 587

tyrosine

Front 588

3 types of steroid hormones

Back 588

gonadal

adrenocortical

placental

Front 589

name the tropic hormones

Back 589

TSH

ACTH

FSH

LH

Front 590

two types of amine hormones

Back 590

thyroid

catecholamines

Front 591

composes 60% of plasma proteins

Back 591

albumin

Front 592

a localized region on the surface of an antigen that is chemically recognized by antibodies; also called antigenic determinant

Back 592

epitope

Front 593

buffy coat and erythrocytes make up _____% of blood

Back 593

45

Front 594

__________ and platelets initiate clot formation

Back 594

plasma proteins

Front 595

pH of blood is about ____

Back 595

7.3-7.4

Front 596

material in plasma

Back 596

gas

hormones

nutrients

waste

Front 597

stem cells that give rise to all of the formed elements of blood

Back 597

hemocytoblast

Front 598

% of blood that is plasma

Back 598

55

Front 599

defective amino acid in hemoglobin that causes sickle cell

Back 599

valene

Front 600

temerature of blood in celcius and farenheight

Back 600

38

100.4

Front 601

megakaryocytes live in _____

Back 601

bone marrow

Front 602

most plasma proteins are produced by the ____

Back 602

liver

Front 603

items needed to produce hemoglobin

Back 603

folic acid

iron

protein

vitamin B12

Front 604

FEVER is also know as

Back 604

pyrexia

Front 605

% of water in plasma

Back 605

90%

Front 606

phagocytes are found within the ____

Back 606

lymph nodes

Front 607

reticular connective tissue makes up most of what three things

Back 607

lymph nodes

spleen

bone marrow

Front 608

major duct of the lymphatic system

Back 608

thoracic

Front 609

______ extend from the LN cortex and contain Bcells, Tcells, and plasma cells

Back 609

medullary cords

Front 610

space between groups of lymphatic tissues that contain a network of fibers and macrophage cells

Back 610

lymph sinuses

Front 611

connective tissue strands that extend in to divide the lymph node into compartments

Back 611

trabeculae

Front 612

painless progressive enlargement of lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphoid tissue

Back 612

Hodgkin disease

Front 613

an enlarged pouch on the thoracic duct that serves as a storage area for lymph

Back 613

cisterna chyli