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71 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Anthropology? |
- the study of humankind in all times and places - anthropos: 'humankind' - logia: 'study of' - used to be a very academic discipline, but now see it increasingly in demand outside of academia |
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Crack Dealers in East Harlem, NYC |
- to understand how poverty and racism shape their choices - systemic racism from mainstream, upper middle class, white society; resort to this dangerous lifestyle to make a living - cultural anthropologist Philippe Bourgios went and lived among a group in East Harlem - took c. 3 years to complete the fieldwork - took months to gain the trust of the community |
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Extracting Ancient DNA, Hendrick Poinar |
- Hendrick Poinar (McMaster Anthropology) - sequencing genome of the Black Death - first ancient genomes sequenced from fossilized/skeletal remains - revealed that the medieval plague is the ancestor to all modern plagues we have in the world today - important to study b/c in many cases diseases turn out to be emerging/reemerging infections; can help us predict future pandemics - tiny fragments pull to of skeletal extracts and rejigged into a genome |
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Mummipedia Project |
- Dr. Wade (McMaster), physical anthropologist - cross-cultural project; interest in mapping out, finding, and recording all of the mummies that are found today - interested not just in human mummies, but the mummification of animals as well |
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Organ Transplants |
- Margaret Lock, American Anthropologist - north america: organ transplants are legal, mind/body are split - has almost become an ethical expectation - japan: transplants are rarely performed; considered unethical |
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Social Sciences |
- Anthropology is part of the social sciences - 3 reasons it is unique: 1) methods: long-term fieldwork via excavations, or living/interacting with people 2) interest in pre-history: anthropologists have the ability to not only study present-day cultures, but prehistoric peoples as well 3) commitment to holism: interdisciplinary perspective to get a more "complete" picture of a culture |
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Four Subfields of Anthropology |
1) physical anthropology 2) archaeology 3) cultural anthropology 4) linguistics - plus: applied anthropology - divisions in the field are not sharp |
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Cultural Anthropology |
- the study of contemporary cultures and societies - culture: transmitted, learned behaviour - methodology: participant observation, interviews - ethnography: a description of an aspect of culture within society |
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Archaeology |
- the study of past societies and cultures using material remains - trying to interpret the meanings of objects, artifacts, and architecture
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Linguistic Anthropology |
- studies the construction and use of language by human societies 1) descriptive linguistics: how language works 2) sociolinguistics: the relationship between language and social behaviour in different cultures 3) historical linguistics: how are languages related to each other? how have they changed over time? - ex. Paul Manning, "coffee culture" and Starbucks lingo |
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Physical/biological anthropology |
- studies all aspects of the biology and behaviour of the human species (and our closest relatives), past and present - would specialist in a specific area - Primatology: Jane Goodall; studied Chimp behaviour - Forensic Anthropology: interested in human remains/skeletons (accidental death, CSI, human rights investigations) - Paleoanthropology: study of the human fossil record |
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Applied Anthropology |
- using anthropology to solve "real world problems" - examples: maketing and business, law, environmental assessments - ex. Grant McCracken: works on issues of consumerism with advertising corporations |
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Culture |
- we all have similar experiences (life, death, etc.) but we experience them differently and attribute different meanings to them - learned (via enculturation) and is NOT biological/innate - can make particular groups of people distinctive things (sometimes unconsciously) which differ from society to society - ex. chairs: within the cultural context of educational settings chairs have particular cultural meanings (utilitarian, "instrument of control") |
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Ethnocentrism |
- tendency to judge the beliefs of one culture from our own perspective - cultural relativism promoted in opposition - ex. to declare another culture primitive = making a value judgment and asserting your own cultural as superior/more advanced |
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Ethnocentric Fallacy |
- using your own cultural values to judge another group of people |
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Cultural relativism |
- understanding another culture from its own perspective - can be morally problematic; do not want to condone horrific acts - ex. Carol Delaney, virginity testing in Turkey: to establish paternity and to ensure division of property after death; found mostly in rural areas where paternity testing is unavailable - ex. cannibalism, the Wari: feeling that through ingesting parts of the body it will have a second life and be with family members in some way - not primitive, barbaric, or exotic |
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Fieldwork |
- anthropological "rite of passage" - immersion within a society - regardless of anthropological discipline, field work involves: - long-term research (at least one year): excavation methods in archaeology and physical anthropology; human interactions for cultural and linguistics - use of both qualitative and quantitative data |
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Informed Consent |
- communicate to participants their role in the study - eh ethical foundation for any research involving human participants - subjects can make a decision whether to participate based on a complete understanding of the risks and benefits of participation - informed participants are better participants |
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Participant Observation |
- interaction closely with people on a daily basis, sometimes living with or near then, and often participating in activities or aspects of daily life |
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Three sources of data obtained in fieldwork |
1) people's own understandings of the rules they share 2) the extent to which they believe they are observing those rules 3) behaviours directly observed by an anthropologist |
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Contradictions in Fieldwork |
- sometimes fieldwork can expose contradictions in a culture - ex. Tuscon Garbage Project, garbologist William Rathje: examining patterns of consumption revealed that information people volunteered about their consumption habits did not always tally with the contents of their waste bin, esp. alcohol |
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Stages of Development in Fieldwork |
- armchair anthropology (late-1800s - c. 1914): anthropologists gathered stories from explorers and wrote from their homes (ex. Edward Tylor) - verandah anthropology (c.1900- 1914; coexisted with the armchair): anthropologists go to the field, set up a nice house with missionaries, and invite local people to be interviewed on the verandah (don't want them inside b/c they were "savage") - "modern fieldwork": use of participant observation |
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Challenges in Fieldwork |
- awkward or embarrassing moments that results from cross-cultural misunderstandings - ex. Michael Kearney's account of witchcraft in Oaxaca, Mexico (tipped the balance of power between two women, creating a powerful enemy in one of them) - these moments can help anthropologists understand a culture better and also force us to question how we view the world - witchcraft became a "real" and rational belief system |
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Representing Others |
- representation: how we depict other people in writing or through film/pictures - ethical responsibility to provide a "fair representation" and to think critically about how certain representations may negatively affect the people we study - ex. Yanomami/o of Venezuela: Napoleon Chagnon alleged to have created harmful and essentialist representations of the Yanomamo for his own personal gain |
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Essentialism |
- the act of creating generalizations of stereotypes about the behaviour of a culture of a group of people - ex. Yanomamo - ex. Tourist Industry: many peoples/places represented as exotic or primitive, such as Hawaii - ultimately there are no primitive, authentic people or exotic cultures; such ideas are culturally constructed representations that have market value |
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Naturalizing Discourse |
- believe that our identities are something that we are born with - we naturalize our familial identities, assuming that shared genes/"blood" automatically means that this lead to shared social bonds - biological genetic relationships are perceived to be tighter |
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Nature v. Nurture: Margaret Mead & Samoans |
- between 1924-26 Mead went to a group of islands to study the Somoa - dissertation advisor Franz Boaz was upset with that fact that lots of scientists in the 1920s were arguing that our behaviours were solely the result of biology, genetic influences, etc. - many scientists starting to write about puberty and the experience of the American teenager going through adolescents (a time of teen angst) - Mead befriended 68 Samoan teen girls: respectful of parents/authority, and not really a time when they were trying new things - Mead argued for the important role of culture in shaping our identities |
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Biocultural Approach |
- out identities are the complex by=product of both nature and nurture - most contemporary anthropologists adopt a biocultural approach - most anthropologists (with the exception of some biological anthropologists) explore the role of culture incepting identities |
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Expressing Identity and Difference |
- language - clothing: ex. Hooma Hoodfar's study of veiling among young Muslim women (stresses the importance of ethnography, cultural relativism, and of obtaining diverse perspectives in fieldwork) - burials and associated grave goods - body modification: ex. tattoos in Samoa strongly associated with identity/class |
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Marcel Mauss |
- argues that gift giving and gift exchanges are essentially universal - not the gifts that are important, but the meaning of the gifts and the social bonds that are fostered through obligation of gift giving |
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Malinowski: Kula Ring |
- a gift exchange system; Trobriand islands - exchanging necklaced made of red sea shells and armbands made of white seashells; can be found all along the beach = nothing particularly special about them - process where men build giant seafaring canoes, then will sail from island to island for months at a time - each item had a unique valued as it passed from person to person; a history of relationships |
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Commodity v. Gift |
- tend to give gifts fro particular events - commodities: items that involve a transfer of value and a counter-transfer (A sells something to B, and the transaction is finished) - no personal relationship = characteristic of capitalism - commodities become gifts when we wrap and personalize them |
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From Commodity to Gift: Xmas Gifts |
- turned into gifts in four ways 1) "thought that counts" 2) Frivolous or luxurious gifts 3) wrapped 4) shopping to find the "right" gift; a ritual to convert a commodity into a gift - ultimately strengthens or fosters familial or the bonds |
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Rites of Passage |
- term coined in 1908 by Arnold Van Gennep; elaborate upon by Victor Turner (1950s-80s) - ritual that accompany many changes in status/identity - can be secular or religious - universally there are three stages in the rite of passage: separation, liminality, and reincorporation - all stages are marked differently through different symbols and different cultures will place different emphasis on certain rites |
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Rites of Passage: Separation |
- physically and symbolically separated from the outside world - can involve symbols of separation (ex. cutting hair, wearing different clothes) - not interested in critical independent thinking skills; interested in creating a body that is obedient - ex. military boot camp |
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Rites of Passage: Liminality |
- stage of being "betwixt-and-between" identities - a transitional zone/time - ex. students: develop a sense of communitas, all going through rigours and tests with each other |
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Rites of Passage: Reincorporation |
- fully reintegrated into society with a new status/identity - can be marked by particular ceremonies/symbolic events |
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Religion |
- formal definition: an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere of the supernatural along with associated ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control - a western concept; a type of worldview - in western society, religion is mostly seen as clearly delineated aspect of society - compromised of both beliefs and behaviours |
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Religion v. Spirituality |
- spirituality = more individual - religion = highly bureaucratized, codified, standardized, highly organized and often tries to influence politics/other realms of society |
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Religious Beliefs: myths and doctrines |
- can be divided into myths and doctrines - myths: a narrative with a plot about supernatural forces or beings; doesn't imply falsity, but suggests that the symbolic truths are the most important aspect of the story - doctrine: direct and formalized statements about religious beliefs; often found in holy texts or official decrees (associated with large, institutionalized religions) |
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Social functions of religion |
- social control: positive and negative sanctions to encourage socially acceptable behaviour - conflict resolution: resolve tension during stressful times - intensifying group solidarity: bring people together/reinforces bonds |
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The Psychological Functions of Religion |
- cognitive: provides intellectual framework for explaining parts of our world that we do not understand/that science can't explain - emotional: helps reduce anxiety by proscribing straightforward ways of coping |
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Sir Edward Burnett Tylor: Animism |
- founder of the anthropology of religion - thought religion was born as people tried to understand conditions and events they could not explain - believed that attempts to explain dreams and trances led early humans to believe that two entities inhabit the body: one active during the day and the other - a double or soul - during dreams/trance states - animism: the belief that nature is enlivened or energized by distinct personalized spirit/beings separable from bodies - believed religion had evolved through stages: animism, polytheism, monotheism - thought religions would decline as science offered better explanations |
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Mana and Taboo |
- alternative to Tylor's theories related to animism - humans first saw the supernatural as a domain of impersonal power of force (mana) that people could control under certain conditions - ex. Star Wars: the force is mana - in some places mana was attached to political offices - can communicate mana through touch; thought that it can be transferred through objects - in some populations, the mana of a given official was so powerful that their bodies were taboo (set apart as sacred and off-limits to ordinary people) |
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Magic and Religion |
- certain supernatural techniques that are used to achieve certain aims - in some cultures, magic is inseparable from religious beliefs - similarity: both are non-rational (faith) - magic often aimed at specific issues/problems, while religion is more concerned with the"bigger picture" - magic can fit into a religious system, utilizing personal agency and power (ex. prayer) - difference in size of groups - religious practices often at specific times - religions usually have more formalized positions of leaderships |
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Magic |
- in westerner society were often view magic as inherently evil, however, in those groups that practice magic it is neither inherently good nor evil - two terms to separate the use of magic in non-western culture 1) witchcraft: an inborn, involuntary, and often unconscious capacity to cause harm to other people 2) sorcery: the performance of certain magical rites for the purpose of harming other people; can be learned, not necessarily born as sorcerers |
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Types of Magic: Imitative & contagious |
- imitative magic: notion that like produces like (ex. voodoo dolls)
- contagious magic: personal item is contagious with their presence (ex. nail clippings, piece of hair, piece of clothing) |
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Shaman |
- synonyms (but problematic): witch doctor, medicine man - spiritual leader who goes into a trance (via the process of transformation) in order to communicate with the spirit world and ask for guidance/help on behalf of a person or search for, and return, a lost soul - can achieve alternate state of consciousness by various means - allows shamans to heal; viewed as doctors in their community - dates to at least 25,000-30,000 years ago - not a hierarchical, rigidified spiritual tradition - refers to a belief that there are different worlds inhabited by spiritual beings; can manipulate those spiritual forces with the help of a shaman (usually for good purposes) - spiritual leader who works on behalf of the people; usually only a part-time job - person will go to a shaman if they are experiencing crisis or stress - tend to find Shamans in indigenous communities (any first people) |
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Upper Paleolithic |
- Palaeolithic: Europe and Asia only - earliest shamanic art dates to this period, c. 40,000-10,000 years ago -pictographs that appear throughout Eurasia (ex. Troys Freres and Lascaux, France) - do not have realistic portrays of humans displayed; only animals, or half-animals/half human forms - evidence for shamanic beliefs? - horns typically worn by shamans, with or without some kind of animal mask; symbolic of spiritual power - caves have symbolic meaning in many shamanic cultures; perceived as entrances to some sort of "other world" - human/animal representations = transformative powers of shamans |
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Gobekli Tepe |
- southeastern Turkey: archaeological site on mountain ridge; discovered 1994 - c. 12,000 BP (before present) - oldest example in the world of monumental architecture - takes the form of megalith: giant boulders arrange in circular patterns - important: people who built this site were hunters and gatherers (nomadic) |
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Witchcraft
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- the manipulation of powerful substances or words (via magic) to cause harm (only occasionally good) - it is more frequently an unconscious activity, which means that the "witch" often does not know that he/she is bewitching anyone - not interested in asking if witchcraft exists, but concerned with how people perceive it in their world |
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Characteristics of a Witch |
1) with a few exceptions, the witch is seen as inherently evil 2) has certain physical traits 3) reversals of behaviour 4) usually inherited condition 5) important in times of crisis 6) women more frequently accused |
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James L. Brain: Agricultural v. H&G |
- witchcraft a widespread belief, but mostly in horticultural/farming societies; rare in h & g socieites - most people in h & g tend to view each other as equals; egalitarian - the more complex society becomes, the more potential there is for interpersonal conflict |
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Witchcraft in 16th/17thC Europe |
- Church was dominant factor in organizing daily life; stressed patriarchy - women who challenged patriarchal institutions in any way were often accused of being witches - ex. midwives: women who helped with pain were all of a sudden vilified (labour and pain were to be endured b/c of Eve) - most women found guilty; torture considered to be the jury and had to survive it or would confess b/c you couldn't handle the torture anymore |
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Witchcraft Among the Azande |
- historically an indigenous and agricultural society - belief in Christianity, in addition to a widespread belief in witchcraft - practice polygamy; typically men of high status - historically live in the south part of the Sudan - belief that witchcraft is inherited, and specifically negus (oval disc in abdomen) - may not realize they have inherited negu until they have been accused of witchcraft - people accuse those they are jealous of, those they believe are jealous of them, those who are different in some way - a mechanism of social control - seen as a rational belief system - always some sort of root cause for something that happens in the community; witchcraft in this case |
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Evan Pritchard |
- argues that witchcraft has a function in this society to maintain a sense of equilibrium or balance/harmony in society and to reduce the possibility for conflict |
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Vampires |
- for many societies, mostly in the past, they were real entities in the same way as witches - can be seen as functioning as a means of conflict resolution - liminal beings and a source of stress - not quite human, not quite dead - prey upon humans (specifically blood) - often the scapegoats for social or individual crises or problems - nothing good in the historical/folklore version of the vampire - earliest myths: vampire-like entities in Greek, Roman, and Mesopotamian mythology (ex. Ekkimu) - first vampires historically date to the 1300/1400s in Europe, evolving from earlier types of vampire myths |
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Lamastu |
- female demon that consumed humans at night; usually babies and small children - death by sucking blood - 4,000 years old - accused of spreading disease |
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Paul Barber: Folkloric v. fictional vampire |
- stories about undead beings prolific in 17thC Europe - uses forensic pathology to explain why people believed the dead could be resurrected; if body changed after death then it may still be alive or inscribed with "a kind of life" - in the 18th and 19thC, vampire stories gained popularity to explain death and outbreaks of infectious disease - decomposition: many vampires stories linked with particular ideas/misconceptions about the decomposition of the body after death - proof of vampirism included: lack of decomposition; hair, tooth and nail "growth"; exsanguination of the corpse after death; reports of corpse "groaning" when touched or moved |
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"Deviant Burials" |
- burial evidence - Celakovice, Czech Republic: labelled a "vampire's graveyard" - 14 bodies with iron stakes/spikes in their bodies and heavy stones holding them down - 11th/12thC - discovered in early 1990s |
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New England Vampire Panic (late-1880s) |
- buried corpses of family members who died of TB were exhumed to check for "unnatural" signs that the body may be alive/undead - suspicious bodies simply flipped over, decapitated, and organs were removed and burned (some cases a stake also driven through them) |
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Vlad the Impaler (15thC) |
- 1431 to 1477: Prince of Wallachia - served as inspiration for Bram Stoker's "Dracula" - formed the basis for a lot of stories surrounding the folkloric vampire - quite famous b/c there were lots of gruesome tales that were written down by historians and people who study oral narratives - famous for decapitating the enemy and going around with them on the end of his sword - ruthless, torturing victims; very bloodthirsty |
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Fictional Vampires: 1920s |
- fictional vampire: a vampire figure that we are familiar with from novels and popular films - was perceived as dreadful and repellent - ex. movie "Nosferatu": silent film produced in Germany in 1922, inspired by Stoker's book - vampire seen as ugly, dreadful, almost inhuman - nothing particularly engaging about this entity - one of the earliest Hollywood monsters |
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Fictional Vampires: late-1960s to 1990s |
- somehow slightly more socially acceptable - change from frightening vampire to sexual and erotic - partly due to liberation from censorship of sexual content - resulted in popularization of sexual content onscreen - charming, sophisticated, worldly - wealthy, older male, malevolent, usually lives alone, cultural outsiders (Eastern Europe) - ex. Dracula |
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Anthony Wallace: religion as revitalization
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- all religions begin as revitalization movements - "deliberate, organized, conscious effort by some members of society to create a more satisfying culture" - characteristics: - period of increased stress or dissatisfaction within a culture - emergence of a charismatic leader - revitalization of "old ways" - integration of new ideas and beliefs to form a new religious tradition that is often a blend of existing/"old" and new ideas - routinization: doctrine, myth, rules, hierarchy, large following - ex. Christianity: Jewish peoples facing religious persecution at the hands of Roman colonizers; Jesus emerges as charismatic leader/saviour; gradually expands, attracts more followers and becomes "routinized" |
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Prince Philip Movement |
- revitalization movement on the island of Tannuu, Vanuatu - believes the Prince is the spirit that comes out and becomes the Garden - an ancestral spirit who first appeared at a volcano - in order to protect traditional culture, the spirit went overseas to marry the queen |
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Voodoo |
- religious tradition that originated in West Africa - brought to the New World via slavery - believe that the world is animate with spirits - fusion of West African spiritual traditions and Catholicism - spirit possession - many spiritual figures are syncretized (ex. Danbal and St. Patrick) |
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Globalization |
- increasing interconnectedness as a result of changes in technology, communications, growth of tourism, transportation, free trade agreements, etc. - has accelerated since the 1960s - can have economic and cultural consequences - leads to increasing rates of cultural appropriation - ex. Sara Baartman: Khoi Khoi woman from S. Africa taken by a British ship doctor back to England in the late-1700s where she was put on display in public places for profit; had to wear nothing or traditional garb - "The Hottentot Venus" |
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The Shuar/Jivaro and Head Hunting |
- take head home with them and treated as war trophies - saw shrunken little heads at exotic objects - taken and stuffed into museums throughout Europe and N. America - problem: oftentimes there is no context in the appropriation of these items and can lead to the production of essentialist representation of a group of people - ex. Shuar represented as timeless, primitive, exotic, and savage in museum exhibits - contributes to and fuels ethnocentrism and racism towards non-western cultures |
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Plastic Shamans and White Medicine Man (1996) |
- appropriation of Plains SW indigenous images by New Age Spiritualists ("Earthwalkers") - revitalization movement - decontextualization of the indigenous peoples practices, even an erasure of history - not being respectful of the original meaning/sacred aspect - commercialization |
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Inukshuk |
- marker of people's identity and places - ex. grave markers, food storage, animal migration, directional points - not a lot of trees/natural points in the environment to act as markers - has become a symbol of Canadian-ness - appropriated for 2010 Winter Olympics |
