Ant 153 Final

Front 1

DNA:

Back 1

Structure of DNA is a double helix w/ 4 base pairs (nucleotides) AT/GC. The 2 pairs are always made up of one pair or the other. Deoxyribonucleic acid, a large organic molecule composed of two intertwined strands of similar units, nucleotides; each nucleotide contains an organic base, deoxyribose sugar, and phosphate molecule.

Front 2

Nucleotide base:

Back 2

DNA; Adenine-Thyamine, Guanine-Cytosine. Each sugar molecule in the DNA strand will bind to one nucleotide base. Each strand of DNA contains millions or even billions (in the case of human DNA) of nucleotide bases. These bases are arranged in a specific order according to our genetic ancestry. The order of these base units makes up the code for specific characteristics in the body, such as eye color or nose-hair length. RNA: Uracil binds with Adenine.

Front 3

Adenine:

Back 3

Adenine is a nucleobase and purine. Purines are six-membered rings attached to five membered rings. When Adenine is attached to DNA, it forms a bond with another molecule called Thymine, a pyrimidine, on the other side of the DNA strand. Adenine is an integral part of DNA, RNA, and ATP. DNA is the genetic code used for cellular life on earth.

Front 4

Thymine:

Back 4

A pyrimidine and nucleobase that binds with Adenine.

Front 5

Guanine:

Back 5

A pyrimidine derivative that binds with Cytosine.

Front 6

Cytosine:

Back 6

A purine derivative that binds with Guanine.

Front 7

Uracil:

Back 7

A pyrimidine derivative that is found in RNA. Uracil binds with Adenine. Found in RNA, it base pairs with adenine and replaces thymine during DNA transcription. Methylation of uracil produces thymine. It turns into thymine to protect the DNA and to improve the efficiency of DNA replication.

Front 8

James Watson:

Back 8

A molecular biologist who offered a model, with the help of Crick (and Rosalind Franklin!), explaining the molecular structure of DNA, the double helix. The model was accurate and aided in beginning a new phase of genetics research.

Front 9

Frances Crick:

Back 9

Worked with James Watson.

Front 10

DNA replication:

Back 10

The double helix strand unwinds and serves as template for the reproduction of the complementary strand. Following DNA replication, two identical DNA molecules have been produced from a single double-stranded DNA molecule. DNA replication is the basis for biological inheritance, a fundamental process occurring in all living organisms to copy their DNA.

Front 11

Amino Acid:

Back 11

Contain an amine group, carboxylic acid and side group (depending on amino acid.) Amino Acids are building blocks for proteins and are crucial for life as they play a crucial role in metabolism.

Front 12

Proteins:

Back 12

A series of amino acids in a linear composition. Proteins play a part in almost every cell of the body. Proteins provide structural support (bones), transportation, are enzymes, provide nutrients, provide defense, and are contractile.

Front 13

DNA Transcription:

Back 13

The creation of an equivalent RNA strand from DNA. RNA polymerase reads a DNA strand and creates a complementary RNA strand. Uracil replaces Thymine. This is the first step leading to gene expression.

Front 14

RNA:

Back 14

Ribonucleic acid. RNA is a single-stranded molecule that contains a nitrogenous base, ribose sugar, and phosphate. RNA is central to protein synthesis.

Front 15

Exon:

Back 15

An exon is a nucleic acid sequence that is represented in the mature form of an RNA molecule after introns have been removed by cis-splicing. Codes for a specific protein. Part of the translated mRNA.

Front 16

Intron:

Back 16

A region of DNA region of a gene that is not translated into a protein. These non-coding sections become RNA precursor strands and are removed via splicing. After intron splicing (ie. removal), the mRNA consists only of exon derived sequences, which are translated into a protein.

Front 17

DNA Translation:

Back 17

The process that "translates" the information contained in the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) to facilitate polypeptide or protein synthesis. Three bases on mRNA are grouped together to form a codon. Each codon is read by a ribosome. tRNA brings the amino acid to each codon.Codon: A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides constituting the genetic code that determines the insertion of a specific amino acid in a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis or the signal to stop protein synthesis.

Front 18

Ribosome:

Back 18

Small spherical structure in the cell cytoplasm made up of proteins and RNA - the site for protein synthesis. Links amino acids together/

Front 19

Polypeptide Chain:

Back 19

A bunch of amino acids connected together by a peptide bond

Front 20

Pleiotropy:

Back 20

one gene influences multiple traits

Front 21

Polygenic trait:

Back 21

A trait influenced by many genes

Front 22

Regulation of gene expression:

Back 22

Process cells use to change genes into gene products (traits seen in the phenotype). Relates to human variation. Allelic levels (dominance vs. recessiveness), variable transcription (certain genes will be turned on under different circumstances, ex. Age and the environment), RNA processing (alternative splicing- generates several proteins from one gene), Protein/environment interactions (variability of expression of genes)

Front 23

Mutations:

Back 23

Changes in the sequencing of amino acids which cause a change in the gene. Can be selected for or against, may be fatal cause of a lot of the human variation seen today

Front 24

Nucleotide substitutions:

Back 24

When a single base pair is substituted for another ie an c where there was supposed to be a g. Can cause mutations and major problems in reading the dna sequence for mrna ect.

Front 25

Insertion:

Back 25

mutation in which one or more base pairs is inserted into the sequence

Front 26

Deletion:

Back 26

mutation in which one or more base pairs are deleted from the DNA sequence

Front 27

Duplication:

Back 27

a mutation that will result in the duplication of two nucleotide bases, for example.

Front 28

Inversion:

Back 28

a mutation during crossing over of meiosis in which the nucleotide bases switch locations and do not necessarily match up to normal base pairs. (A-T, C-G)

Front 29

Translocation:

Back 29

Switching of a segment of a chromosome to another chromosome.

Front 30

uneven crossing-over:

Back 30

unequalcrossing-over, crossing-over that happens when the breaks do not occur at precisely homologous points in two chromatidstrands, and hence results in localised duplication of genetic material in one chromatid and complementary deletion in the other. The result is a chromosome with an extra or no copy of the gene.

Front 31

Gene:

Back 31

Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. Organisms rely on genes as it is the basic hereditary unit/

Front 32

Junk-DNA:

Back 32

Segments of DNA that don't code for anything. False idea some DNA has functions in the past a future of organisms even though it may not be functioning at that specific time. Important because we can't always know the exact function of some segments of DNA because they may have had a previous or future function and are not "on" at that specific time

Front 33

DNA amplification:

Back 33

A method used to study DNA. DNA is amplified in order for it to be seen by the naked eye.

Front 34

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR):

Back 34

isolates DNA sequence. Amplifies a single copy of a complex mixture. PCR allows one to obtain genetic information from any biological/forensic sample.

Front 35

Denature:

Back 35

a temperature dependent step of PCR in which DNA fragments are heated at high temperatures, which reduce the DNA double helix to single strands. These strands become accessible to primers (segment of DNA to initialize DNA synthesis).

Front 36

Annealing:

Back 36

another temperature dependent step in which the reaction mixture is cooled down. Primers anneal to the complementary regions in the DNA template strands, and double strands are formed again between primers and complementary sequences

Front 37

Extension:

Back 37

The DNA polymerase synthesizes a complementary strand. The enzyme reads the opposing strand sequence and extends the primers by adding nucleotides in the order in which they can pair. The whole process is repeated over and over.

Front 38

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP):

Back 38

refers to a difference between two or more samples of homologous DNA molecules arising from differing locations of restriction sites, and to a related laboratory technique by which these segments can be distinguished. In RFLP analysis the DNA sample is broken into pieces (digested) by restriction enzymesrestriction fragments are separated according to their lengths by gel electrophoresis.

Front 39

Enzyme digest:

Back 39

the process in which restriction enzymes break DNA into smaller pieces.

Front 40

Gel electrophoresis:

Back 40

technique used for the separation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or proteinmolecules using an electric field applied to a gel matrix. Fragments can then be separated according to their lengths.

Front 41

Sanger Sequencing:

Back 41

extension is initiated at a specific site on the template DNA by using a short oligonucleotide 'primer' complementary to the template at that region. The oligonucleotide primer is extended using a DNA polymerase, an enzyme that replicates DNA. Included with the primer and DNA polymerase are the four deoxynucleotide bases (DNA building blocks), along with a low concentration of a chain terminating nucleotide

Front 42

Capillary electrophoresis:

Back 42

Running gel electrophoresis through a small tube (capillary) See gel electrophoresis (review session).

Front 43

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA):

Back 43

Within the mitochondria, the organelle contains unique DNA. Maternally inherited. No recombination occurs in this DNA, and no crossovers. This allows for understanding an uninterpreted line. Not strongly affected by selection. High mutation rate for tracking changes over the generations. "Mitochondrial eve" is the female heidelbergensis (sp?) that our mtDNA comes from.

Front 44

Haplogroups:

Back 44

Haplogroups are sortings of who has cuts where. Similar cuts are in haplogroups, and these haplogroups are linked with similar haplotypes. Haplogroups all share a couple mutations. A group containing similar haplotypes that show evolution mutation over time. RFLP

Front 45

Haplotypes:

Back 45

grouped mutations on an individual level. Sequencing, multiple RFLP's and STR.

Front 46

Microsatellites:

Back 46

There are many different types of micro satellites. They are pervasive non-coding regions.

Front 47

Short tandem repeats (STRs):

Back 47

hyper-variable in nature, higher mutation rate, used in forensics.

Front 48

Minisatellites:

Back 48

a section of DNA that consists of a short series of bases 10–60bp. These occur at more than 1000 locations in the human genome. Some minisatellites contain a central (or "core") sequence of letters “GGGCAGGANG” (where N can be any base) or more generally a strand bias with purines (Adenosine (A) and Guanine (G)) on one strand and pyrimidines (CytosineThymine (T)) on the other. It has been proposed that this sequence per se encourages chromosomes to swap DNA. Effective way to make dna fingerprint very specific to each person

Front 49

Macrosatellites:

Back 49

Like micro-satellites but just bigger (review session).

Front 50

Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements (LINES):

Back 50

"As for LINES and SINES, remember that these are mutations, for the most part, and as such can be used for studying variation, as well as for population genetics in terms of looking at how they might differ between populations and such.

Front 51

Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements (SINES):

Back 51

"As for LINES and SINES, remember that these are mutations, for the most part, and as such can be used for studying variation, as well as for population genetics in terms of looking at how they might differ between populations and such."

Front 52

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs):

Back 52

Mutation at a single base, found throughout the genome.

Front 53

Transitions:

Back 53

(A <-> G or T <-> C) purine -> purine, pyrimidine -> pyrimidine

Front 54

Transversions:

Back 54

(A <-> C or T <-> G) purine <-> pyrimidine

Front 55

“hot spots”:

Back 55

An area with a lot of mutation

Front 56

Linkage Disequilibrium:

Back 56

Two loci are so physically close that they do not sort independently. Can often illustrate patterns of directional selection (ex. lactose tolerance)

Front 57

Y-chromosome:

Back 57

Male sex chromosome (paternal lineage). Little recombination. -Used for surname studies. The significance is its use for Ancient DNA studies, not unlike mtDNA

Front 58

Fst:

Back 58

Measure of how much regional differentiation there is between populations of the same species.

Front 59

Nucleotide Diversity (π):

Back 59

If two sequences of 10 nucleotides differ by three nucleotides, then it has a 0.3 difference (3/10).

Front 60

Average Pairwise Difference:

Back 60

In a population, measure between all possible pairs of sequences. When plotted= mismatch distribution

Front 61

Mismatch Distribution:

Back 61

Looks at the frequency of different numbers of mismatches between sequence pairs. Means of analyzing change in population size.

Front 62

Intermatch Distributions:

Back 62

Looks at the frequency of different numbers of mismatches between sequence pairs between two populations.

Front 63

Molecular Clock:

Back 63

Rate of molecular evolution based on mutation rates. Prof. Snow says "The molecular clock is based on the assumption that mutations in any particular lineage are going to happen at a pretty regular rate. So, for example, you could say that a new mutation in is going to occur one every two hundred years. So, if you compare two populations/species/individuals (depending on the kind of analysis that you're doing), and there are three mutational differences between the two, then you know that they both had a common ancestor 600 years ago--or that way the time that they diverged. Does that make sense? It's basically a means of using the genome as a clock to tell how much time has passed since two groups had the same ancestor."

Front 64

Pedigree based:

Back 64

"A pedigree based molecular clock in based on using a family-tree pedigree (like a family tree we used in class). A phylogenetic one is based on a known split between species far back in a phylogeny. The difference is mainly one of scale. Both don't generally used ancient DNA." (prof. Snow)

Front 65

Phylogenetic based:

Back 65

"A pedigree based molecular clock in based on using a family-tree pedigree (like a family tree we used in class). A phylogenetic one is based on a known split between species far back in a phylogeny. The difference is mainly one of scale. Both don't generally used ancient DNA." (prof. Snow)

Front 66

Homoplasy:

Back 66

when two separate species evolve something for the same function but are not cladistically related ex. wing of bats and birds

Front 67

Vincent Sarich & Alan Wilson:

Back 67

Created the molecular clock and figured out the spacing between species

Front 68

Multifactorial inheritance:

Back 68

Inherited traits which are also influenced by the environment (i.e. height, skin color, etc...)

Front 69

Adaptation:

Back 69

Is both a process and a type of trait; process where genetic changes occur over many generations in a population as a result of natural selection and also the traigs that result from these changes. Other reasons besides adaptation can result in a trait being selected for (i.e. gene hitchhiking, where one trait is passively selected for because of it's proximity to another gene that IS actively selected for.)

Front 70

Acclimatization:

Back 70

Long term changes that occur within one's lifetime in response to environmental stress.

Front 71

Acclimation:

Back 71

Short term physiological response to an environmental stress (like being exposed to the cold or heat; the body rapidly responds to the stress).

Front 72

Developmental Acclimatization:

Back 72

Changes in organ or body structure during the growth of an organism (like growing with bigger lungs due to being raised in a high elevation environment).

Front 73

Physiological acclimatization:

Back 73

Physiological change that occurs over days or months (like increase of daily sweating over prolonged exposure to high temperatures.

Front 74

Cold Response:

Back 74

Immediate acclimation responses include an increase in metabolism, shivering (both attempts to increase body temperature). As time goes on, body will produce physiological acclimatizations such as further increase in metabolic rate, increase in red blood cell count, vasoconstriction, and hunting response. Adaptions to cold include more compact body forms, shorter appendages, lighter skin color, narrow, high nasal aperture, and things like epicanthic eye folds and cheek pads.

Front 75

Vasoconstriction:

Back 75

When veins constrict to suck in blood from outer extremities.

Front 76

Hunting Response:

Back 76

When body keeps cylcing blood out to extremities and back into body and out again, and so on (in effort to regulate core temp and extremity function).

Front 77

Epicanthic eye fold:

Back 77

Cold adaptation (genetic) in some lineages which results in a small layer of tissue over eyes which allows for greater insulation. Most common in Asian populations. (Face is hardest part to keep warm in cold environments.)

Front 78

Cheek pads:

Back 78

Thickness over the cheekbones to insulate the face from the cold; also an adaptation (genetic).

Front 79

Thomsen’s Rule:

Back 79

Refers to the correlation between humidity and nasal index (80+% correlation).

Front 80

Nasal Index:

Back 80

(Width/Length)*100

Front 81

Nose (Tip, bridge, root):

Back 81

Possible selective pressure on the nose has resulted in certain adaptations (nose brings air into lungs and air needs to be moist and warm). Dryer environments results in a "hook" nose (bump on ridge) which allows for more space for higher amounts of moisture to be inserted in air going to lungs. More humid environments have smaller nose bridge. Root of nose is where it merges with face, Bridge of nose is just anterior/inferior to root, and tip is most anterior portion of the nose. Europeans generally have a high root and flat bridge with a small tip. South Asians tend to have a low root. Africans tend to have a variable root position but overall broader nose (Pygmy population and Aus. Aborigines have a nasal index near 100, meaning nose is as wide as it is long).

Front 82

Heat Responses:

Back 82

Responses to high temperatures which include: increased sweating (lose up to 4 liters of sweat per hour), flush (increased blood flow to skin, which is vasodialation and allows blood to cool near skin surface; up to 8 liters of blood past skin per minute), harder breathing, and issues can begin when body temp hits 103 degrees; 108+ can cause brain damage. Adaptions to heat include elongated bodies, longer appendages and a lower BMI.

Front 83

Steatopygia:

Back 83

When body allows for more fat to help with menstruation and childbearing; results in large fat deposits in rear ends and these can come out of body at close to a 90 degree angle.

Front 84

Carl Bergman:

Back 84

Bergman started examining the relationship between BMI and climate and found that animals and individuals in colder areas have a higher BMI while the opposite was true for animals/people in warmer environments. Example is to examine the wolly mammoth and their adaptations to the ice ages (i.e. large size, high BMI, etc...)

Front 85

John Allen:

Back 85

Noted relationships between appendage length and correlation to temperature in environment.

Front 86

Bergman’s Rule:

Back 86

Relates specifically to body size in relation to climate. Greater surface areas cool quicker and if two objects of the same volume are compared, a boxy shape will cool slower than a more elongated rectangle.

Front 87

Allen’s Rule:

Back 87

Relates specifically to length of extremities in relation to climate. Appendage length is shorter in cold areas and longer in warm areas (including all appendages except the penis). Greater surface area with longer appendages allows for more heat dissipation while shorter allows for less heat loss. Thickness of walls is related (i.e. Bergman's Rule).

Front 88

Fourier’s Law:

Back 88

Rule that heat dissipates based on size of relative surface area, heat differential and thickness of wall. This rule guided both Bergman and Allen's rules.

Front 89

High Altitude Responses:

Back 89

A lot of biological responses came out of dealing with hypoxia, which is reduced oxygen to the blood and tissues. Among them are the larger chest circumference, and enlarged lung volumes. Acclimation: -Increased respiration, increased heart rate, increased hemoglobin content in blood.

Front 90

Chronic Mountain Sickness (CMS):

Back 90

a disease that can develop during extended time living at altitude.

Front 91

Hox Gene:

Back 91

Regulatory genes that influence your development as an embryo and beyond by turning on or off other genes based on your developmental environment. Mutation in these genes can cause things to be made doubly or wrongly or not to be made at all. These genes are found in four clusters and help determine which body part will become what. Genes are not species specific ("make eye" genes from a mouse were inserted in a fruit fly and mouse eyes were not grown, fruit fly eyes were.)

Front 92

Regulatory Genes:

Back 92

Genes that produce proteins that bind to DNA and activate or deactivate the transcription of other genes.

Front 93

Skin Functions:

Back 93

Protects underlying structures, protects against infection, regulates body temperature, protects against solar ultri-violet (UV) radiation and synthesizes vitamin D.

Front 94

Dermis:

Back 94

Part of skin below the surface (i.e. beneath the epidermis), which contains veins, arteries, hair follicles, sweat glands, etc...

Front 95

Epidermis:

Back 95

Part of skin at surface which serves as outer protective layer and is susceptible to changes based on melanin contents, primarily keryotenosites.

Front 96

Keratinocyte:

Back 96

Main constituent of the epidermis that makes up approximately 90% of epidermal cells. Keratinocytes form tight junctions with the nerves of the skin and hold the Langerhans cells and intra-dermal lymphocytes in position within the epidermis. Keratinocytes are essential immunomodulaters, maintaining the intergrity of the immune response by secreting inhibitory cytokines such as IL-4 and TGFβ when dormant, but when provoked, the keratinocytes will stimulate cutaneous inflammation and Langerhan cell activation via THFα and IL-1β secretion.

Front 97

Melanin:

Back 97

Dark pigment granules of the skin and hair of animals and of structures of plants.

Front 98

Melanocyte:

Back 98

pigment cells of the skin

Front 99

Melanosomes:

Back 99

organelle in melanocytes that produces and stores melanin granules

Front 100

Eumelanin:

Back 100

Black brown skin pigments polymer responsible for those colors

Front 101

Pheomelanin:

Back 101

red/yellow skin pigment polymer responsible for those colors

Front 102

Constitutive skin color:

Back 102

Amount of genetically-determined melanin pigmentation produced without any influence of solar radiation. This is more interesting to anthropologists than faculative because there are too many cultural things that can influence faculative (i.e. tanning is smiled upon in North America but in China it is a sign of working in the fields and thus for the lower class).

Front 103

Facultative skin color:

Back 103

Short-lived tanning that results from exposure to UV radiation.

Front 104

Melanocortin - 1 receptor (MC1R):

Back 104

is one of the key proteins in regulating hair and skin color. A member of the G-protein-coupled receptor family of proteins, it functions at the surface of specialist pigment producing cells (called melanocytes) to regulate melanogenesis in mammals.

Front 105

Skin color tiles:

Back 105

attempts as measuring skin color by a standard chart

Front 106

Reflectance spectrophotometry:

Back 106

Seeing how much light is reflected off the skin to measure skin darkness/lightness.

Front 107

Sexual dimorphism in skin color:

Back 107

There is sexual dimorphism in skin color as males tend to be darker than females. There may be sexual selection for females to have lighter skin based on being more attractive with this feature, but it may also be related to vitamin D production (which relates to pregnancy). Testosterone correlates with melanin production which may also be why men are darker.

Front 108

Clinal variation:

Back 108

Glogger's Rule, lighter skin tones near poles,darker skin tones near equator

Front 109

Glogger’s Rule:

Back 109

biological concept that species pigment is darker in more humind areas

Front 110

Evolutionary Hypotheses for skin color:

Back 110

melanin pigment evolved to regulate UV exposure, too much UV exposure = sunburn, DNA damage, skin cancer, lighter skin color near poles to prevent vitamin D deficiency

Front 111

UV radiation:

Back 111

Related to the evolutionary hypotheses for skin color, people with an overproduction of pheomelanin (think red heads) burn easily. Moreover, overexposure to UV radiation can break down folates pregnant women need for proper development of the fetus (review session).

Front 112

Nutrient photolysis:

Back 112

UV light can break nutrients in skin, folate breaking down can be especially harmful to women (below)

Front 113

Folate photolysis:

Back 113

UV light can break down folate in skin, women especially need folate for healthy pregnacy. More melanin to protect folate in areas with high UV exposure

Front 114

Vitamin D:

Back 114

If you have too much vitamin D you can get calcification of soft tissue, if you have too little you can get rickets

Front 115

Rickets:

Back 115

a bone disease of young children and juveniles in which their rapidly growing bones fail to mineralize properly; the bones-especially weight bearing ones -easily bend or may become distorted

Front 116

Cold Response:

Back 116

Immediate acclimation responses include an increase in metabolism, shivering (both attempts to increase body temperature). As time goes on, body will produce physiological acclimatization such as further increase in metabolic rate, increase in red blood cell count, vasoconstriction, and hunting response. Adaptions to cold include more compact body forms, shorter appendages, lighter skin color, narrow, high nasal aperture, and things like epicanthic eye folds and cheek pads.

Front 117

Peter Post:

Back 117

Posited that dark skin is not as cold adapted as light skin (think guinea pig experiment with the shaved guinea pig who had light and dark skin. When exposed to liquid nitrogen, the white skin regenerated better than the dark skin, although peter post just supports the findings of this study).

Front 118

Hair color/form:

Back 118

shape and form depends on follicle, round follicle = straight hair, oval follicle = wavy hair , flat follicle = tightly curled hair, different types

Front 119

Eye color:

Back 119

Melanin levels affect eye color, too

Front 120

Head form:

Back 120

shape measured by cephalic index, size measured by cranial capacity

Front 121

Cephalic Index:

Back 121

(skull width / skull length) x 100

Front 122

Face Form:

Back 122

relates to prognathism...Our evolution is such that our faces became flatter because we no longer use the mastication (chewing muscles) that we used to use in earlier forms of homo.

Front 123

Retraction of prognathism:

Back 123

shortening of face so that mouth face recede under top of head, (orthognathic)

Front 124

Structural reduction:

Back 124

idea developed my Sewall Wright. When selection favors for a polygenic trait, changes don't occur as bad changes are selected out. Decreases selection pressure causes mutations to accumulate, and it doesn't matter, b/c trait no longer has strong selection for. example- fish that evolved no eyes in a dark cave, because eyes no longer selected for and mutations accumulated

Front 125

Sewall Wright:

Back 125

developed theory of structural reductionism (above)

Front 126

Probable Mutation Effect:

Back 126

Idea developed by C. Loring Brace. Took structural reductionism and applied it to face form. Large jaws could have been selected for in early humans, as they used their jaws for tools to chew and process their food. Once tools were developed (knives, fire, etc.) large jaws no longer selected for. With selection pressure gone, mutations accumulated and led to smaller jaws and flatter faces

Front 127

C. Loring Brace:

Back 127

developed the Probably Mutation Effect (above)

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Dental Traits:

Back 128

using traits in dentition of associate groups, under tight genetic control and polygenic alleles, Christy Turner

Front 129

Supernumerary cusps:

Front 130

Carabelli’s Cusp:

Front 131

Christy Turner:

Back 131

studied 28 dental traits to draw relationships between Native American, Pacific, and Old World Populations

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Sundadont:

Back 132

dental characteristics of people of eastern asian descent, lower M2 and M1 double rooted, weak double shoveled incisors, no winging, double lingual cusp on lower premolar, double root on upper premolar, triple root on upper M2 molar

Front 133

Sinodont:

Back 133

shovel shaped incisors, supernumerary roots, palatine torus, diastema, fused roots, concave enamel margin

Front 134

Shovel-shape incisors:

Back 134

incisor tooth that has thickened margins on the lingual surface (tongue side of the tooth)

Front 135

supernumerary roots:

Back 135

larger roots than expected

Front 136

Palatine torus:

Back 136

an exostosis protruding from the midline of the hard palate

Front 137

Diastema:

Back 137

is a gap or space between two teeth. Many species of mammals have diastemata as a normal feature, most commonly between the incisors and molars.

Front 138

Fused Roots:

Front 139

Concave enamel margin:

Front 140

Dermatoglyphics:

Back 140

field of study using bumps and ridges on skin to identify people (fingerprints). Fingerprints are 95% genetically determines. We have fingertips for grip and sensitivity.

Front 141

Harold Cummins:

Back 141

started field of Dermatogylphics

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Tent:

Back 142

fingerprint pattern that is shaped similarly to tent peaks

Front 143

Loop:

Back 143

rainbow shaped finger print pattern that either originates from radial side or ulnar,

Front 144

Down Syndrome:

Back 144

all fingerprints are ulnar loops

Front 145

Whorl:

Back 145

circular pattern of fingerprint.

Front 146

Tri-Radius:

Back 146

fingerprint shape where the axis (center line) doesn't double back.

Front 147

Pattern Intensity Index:

Back 147

total number of tri-radii on all fingers

Front 148

Axis:

Back 148

center of the fingerprint loops. Loops - line that doesn't loop back, whorl- center of whorl

Front 149

(Total) Ridge Count:

Back 149

ridges counted from tri-radii to axis. then total the number of ridges on all digits

Front 150

Turner's Syndrome:

Back 150

highest avg. ridge count (greater than 165)

Front 151

Multiple X chromosomal abnormality:

Back 151

lowest numbered ridge count

Front 152

Alfred Binet:

Back 152

French psychologist and inventor of the first usable intelligence test, known at that time as Binet test basically today called IQ test. His principal goal was to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum.

Front 153

Intelligence Quotient (IQ):

Back 153

(mental age/actual age) x 100

Front 154

HH Goddard:

Back 154

brought IQ to the US and used for eugenics to determine feeble-mindedness. Categorized mental ages (idiot, imbecile, moron).

Front 155

Vineland Training School for Feebleminded Children:

Front 156

Idiot:

Back 156

deemed to have the cognitive ability, mental age, of a 5-7 year old

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Imbecile:

Back 157

deemed to have the cognitive ability, mental age, of a 8-11 year old

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Moron:

Back 158

a mental age of approximately 12

Front 159

Ellis Island:

Back 159

wouldn't let immigrants enter at Ellis island based on tests that determined feeble-mindedness - tests were culturally biased

Front 160

Lewis Terman:

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developed large-scale IQ testing (Stanford-Binet IQ test). Tried to make IQ testing more about innate abilities, and segregated students based on IQ. Males and females did comparably on tests, by 1930s he thought his test were no longer relevant

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Stanford-Binet IQ test:

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developed by Lewis Terman (above)

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Charles Spearman:

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developed idea of general factor (below)

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“General Factor” or “g”:

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The general intelligence factor (abbreviated g) is a controversial construct used in the field of psychology to quantify what is common to the scores of all intelligence tests.

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Robert Yerkes:

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created the alpha and beta tests

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Alpha & Beta tests:

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designed to test the intelligence of 1.75 million American soliders during WWI to determine which jobs in the military they would be best suited on based on their intelligence. Alpha was for literate soldiers and beta was for illierate soliders. According to tests, average man at that time was a "moron." Turned into a political nightmare. Additionally African Americans and Immigrant individuals scored lower on these tests, which was used as reasoning by the White Americans as why they were inferior races.

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Otis-Lennon Ability Test:

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B.I.T.C.H. test:

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an intelligence test designed for African American students, may take away some cultural bias in intelligence testing. Found that African American students preformed higher on this test, and that many students were previously miss-assigned by IQ tests

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Heritability:

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the proportion of total phenotypic variance that is due to genetic variance

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Linkage Disequilibrium (genetic variance in IQ):

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used to identify specific genes that influence intelligence, genes that code for higher or lower IQ. Use linkage analysis to identify specific genes

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Bruce Lahn:

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His research on the microcephalin gene led to a hypothesis that an archaic homo sapiens lineage such as the Neanderthals may have contributed to the recent development of the human brain

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ASPM:

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a human gene whose defective forms are associated with autosomal recessive primary microcephaly

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Microcephalin-(MCPH1):

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is one of six genes causing primary microcephaly when non-functional mutations exist in the homozygous state. Derived from the Greek words for "small" and "head", this condition is characterised by a severely diminished brain. Hence it has been assumed that normal variants have a role in brain development. But no effect on mental ability, brain size or behavior is attributable to either this or another similarly studied microcephaly gene, ASPM.

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Amyloid precursor protein gene (app):

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Fmr2 gene:

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International IQ:

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Western and Asian countries tend to score higher than other countries. Other countries' scores depend on the amount of contact they have with Europeans. Correlated with GDP? - Gelade - not true, his argument carries racist implications

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The Bell Curve:

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a book written by Richard Hernstein and Charles Murray. Had 4 main arguments: 1) average IQ scores differ between blacks and whites; 2) IQ scores are mostly due to innate abilities (genes); 3) IQ scores (and differences between IQ scores) can't be changed; 4) welfare and education efforts are pointless. The arguments relied on problematic datasets and flawed statistical analyses.

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Richard Hernstein and Charles Murray:

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wrote "The Bell Curve" explained above

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J. Phillippe Rushton:

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Wrote "Race, Evolution, and Behavior". Claimed there was a spectrum of intelligence, ranging from Africans at the lowest and Asians being the highest. Thought there was a correlation between IQ and sexual traits. The book did not have accurate data and carried racist implications

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Flynn Effect:

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intergenerational increase in IQ, approximately 18 points increase per generation

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Genetic Peopling of the New World:

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A,B,C, D, & X:

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the five accepted founder halpogroups. Distributions are used to identify relationships between regions and between New World occupants and their asian ancestors.

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Haplogroup Frequencies:

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Principle Coordinate Analysis:

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based on haplogroup frequencies of many populations

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Haplotype Networks:

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provide evidence for cultural contiunity between populations. Circles = people having a certain haplotype, lines connect them. Look at differences between ancient and modern populations to see cultural continutity

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Asymmetric Y-chromosome admixture:

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more European Admixture in Y-chromosome of Native Americans because more European males mated with Native American women when they came to North America and y-chromosome genes passed along patrilinealy

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Q-M3 Y-chromo haplogroup:

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It is believed to have arisen in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years ago. This haplogroup contains many Siberians, Central Asians, and indigenous peoples of the Americas. Haplogroup Q Y-chromosomes are also found scattered at a low frequency throughout Eurasia.[1] This haplogroup is diverse despite its low frequency among most populations outside of Siberia or the Americas, and at least six primary subclades have been sampled and identified in modern populations.

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Lineage Tests:

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companies provide tests that identify your ancestry using the y-chromosome and mtDNA. The tests provide probabilities of where you come from/ancestry.

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Schroeder et al (2007):

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wrote about Native American private allele (below)

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Private Allele:

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D91120, 9 repeat allele is only found in Native American populations of the New World, suggesting that one group founded the Native Americans

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D9s1120, 9-repeat allele:

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only found in the Native American populations of the New World

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Wang et al (2007):

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a recent publication comparing modern Native American STR profiles with others. This aids in distinguishing patterns of migration and suggests a founding population for Native Americans

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Ray et al (2009):

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same as Wang et al (2007)

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Greenberg 3-Wave model:

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Beringian Stanstill:

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from Asia the Native Americans moved into the Bering Strait and stayed for a while accumulating mutations. Then they migrated into N and S America

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On Your Knees Cave:

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individual was found in this cave near Alaska, that was haplogroup D w/ a very rare specific haplotype - found only in the Native Americans on the West Coast

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Ancient DNA:

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biological remains of ancient people, ceremonial cloth (menstrual blood), coprolites (ancient poop), yucca chew

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Nature:

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Effects our gene, gene interactions, dominance/recessive. Additive traits

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Nurture:

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traits that are solely the product of our environment (ex. hairstyle, clothing, parents, friends, economic status, schools, stimuli, teachers. Culturally different populations have a different view on if nature or nurture is more important.

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Shared/Non-share family factors:

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slightly different environmental factors than a sibling, for example.

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Cultural differences in Nature/Nurture/Choice:

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Different view on which is more important

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Francis Galton:

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A prime figure during Eugenics. He was one of the first to study twins.

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Twin Studies:

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Helps distinguish levels of influence of environmental/genes. Studies on different traits, ex. Intelligence, Anorexia nervosa, suicide, self image, phobias.

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Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart:

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Thomas Buchard studied twins reared apart. She studied 130 individuals and tested their similarities and differences.

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Thomas Buchard:

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Studied twins

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Monozygotic Twins:

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Identical twins, a fertilized egg forms one zygote which spits into two separate embryos.

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Dyzygous Twins (fraternal):

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fraternal twins. Two independently fertilized eggs by two different sperms results in dyzygous twins.

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Jim Twins:

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Two individuals separated at birth who lived in separate towns reunited at 40 years of age. Both men were named James, preferred Miller Life/Salem cigarettes, married women named Linda, divorced Linda and re-married women named Betty, struggled with the English language.

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Problems with twin studies:

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Self enrollment in studies, limited number of twin sets, environments may not be entirely separate

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Heritability:

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In almost every trait, variation exists due to environmental and genetic causes.

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Variance:

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among traits, differences exist from person to person.

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Heritability in the Broad Sense (H2):

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the amount of phenotypic variation that can be explained by genetic variation

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Phenotypic variance:

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The fundamental prerequisite for evolution via natural selection.

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Genetic variance:

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Environmental variance:

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Dominant/recessive genetic traits:

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Additive genetic traits:

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Epistasis in genetic traits:

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the interaction between genes.

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Heritability in the narrow sense (h2):

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heritability due to additive traits

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Alice Brue:

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Writer of "Spearman and Archer".

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Spearman/Archer:

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Idea that the long and lean were more suited to be spear men (Africans) and thus utilized that method in hunting whilst the more short/muscular were better suited to use bow and arrows (Asians) and thus utilized that technology. Based on the argument that technology use is correlated to body types. This theory was obliterated upon the advent of agriculture.