Anatomy Test 4

Front 1

PNS synapses

Back 1

where 2 neurons meet.

Front 2

polysynaptic pathways

Back 2

99.9%

Front 3

monosynaptic pathways

Back 3

2 neurons, 1 sensory and 1 motor. these are the reflexes. (achilles, patellar, gag)

Front 4

receptors

Back 4

occur in the brain to (chemo). cells or tissues that respond to internal or external stimuli. communications

Front 5

categories of stimuli

Back 5

mechano- physical force activates them

chemo-activated by chemicals (neurotrans)

photo- detect light in the retina

baro-pressure, monitor BP in carotids and aorta

thermo-monitor temp

noci-pain detection, not in brain

Front 6

mechanoreceptors

Back 6

meissners corpsules/tactile- in dermal skin layer

pacinian sorpules- in deep dermis and hypodermis, fr deep pressure sensations

ruffini endings- in deep dermis, hypodermis, and joints for deep continuous pressure

Front 7

chemoreceptors

Back 7

in CNS and PNS. helps control the autonomic nervous system using neurotransmitters.

Front 8

2 types of neurotransmitters (ACH and mimics of ACH)

Back 8

cholinergic- nicotinic (nicotine mimics ACH) in adrenal glands, and muscarinic (mushroom poison, in parasympathetic fibers and sweat glands)

adrenergic- epinephrine and norepinephrine. alpha- in blood vessels, constricts them

beta- heart and on bronchials

Front 9

beta blockers

Back 9

block the receptors, blocks beta 1 receptors on the heart and blocks attachment of adrenaline to heart to keep consistent rhythm.

Front 10

beta 2

Back 10

on bronchioles. adrenaline binds to beta 2 and causes constriction of bronchioles. problem for asthma people. inhales mimics adrenaline and binds to beta 2 to block adrenergic receptors.

Front 11

cranial nerves

Back 11

10 enter brain stem

2 enter upper brain (cerebrum)

Front 12

spinal nerves

Back 12

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral

1 coxxygeal

Front 13

dorsal root

Back 13

sensory neurons only

Front 14

ventral root

Back 14

motor neurons only

Front 15

ramus

Back 15

initial branching of a spinal nerve carrying both sensory and motor neurons

Front 16

ventral plexus

Back 16

branching network of intersecting nerves

Front 17

plexuses

Back 17

come off of the ventral ramus

Front 18

cervical plexus

Back 18

nerve fibers come off of c1-c4. head neck shoulders diaphragm (phrenic nerve)

Front 19

brachial plexus

Back 19

c5-t1. chest shoulders arms hands (axillary nerve)

Front 20

thoracic plexus

Back 20

THERE IS NONE

Front 21

lumbar plexus

Back 21

t12-l4. back abdomonal, legs (femoral nerve)

Front 22

sacral plexus

Back 22

l5-s3. pelvis, butt, genitals, legs, feet, (sciactic nerve)

Front 23

coxxygeal plexus

Back 23

s4-coxxyx. tailbone, coccygeal nerve.

Front 24

neurophysiology

electrical equilibrium

Back 24

resting potential. -70mv. lo hi lo lo hi. insidee the cell. Na,K,Ca,Cl,Pr

Front 25

axonal hillcock

Back 25

where axon joins cell body. if enough Na ions reach the hillcock, it initiates an action potential

Front 26

location of channels

Back 26

VR Ca- on knob

VR K- on axon

VR Na- on axon

CR Na- on the receiving knob

Front 27

graded potentials

Back 27

excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)

not an action potential. approaches threshold. sodium into the post synaptic neuron

Front 28

action potential

Back 28

cant have it without EPSP. enough NA to reach threshold. so it spikes and depolorizes. then VR NA close. NA and K flow out making the cell (-)

Front 29

absolute refrctory period

Back 29

when VR NA channels are closed and inactivated for service. once they open for NA and close it is completely closed

Front 30

relative refractory period

Back 30

super normal stimulus or secondary strong stimulus could cause an action potential

Front 31

hyperpolarization

Back 31

part of action potential. K channels are quick to open and slow to close. they let a little too much K out below resting potential

Front 32

eye anatomy

Back 32

anterior cavity with aqueous humor has anterior and posterior chambers.

posterior cavity- vitreous humor that is jelly like. presses on retina so it is smooth and wrinkle free

Front 33

cornea

Back 33

anterior clear covering of iris and pupil. protection but more prone to infection. not as tough as sclera but clear

Front 34

sclera

Back 34

outermost layer of eye. fibrous connective tissue. white tough part of eye

Front 35

choroid

Back 35

middle layer. highly vascularized. brings oxygen and nutrients to the eye

Front 36

retina

Back 36

innermost layer of eye with photoreceptors. called the movie screen. has rods and cones

Front 37

ciliary body and suspensory ligaments

Back 37

change the shape of the lens and hold the lens in place

Front 38

lens

Back 38

biconvex structure. focus images on the retina

Front 39

iris

Back 39

pigment containing structure

Front 40

pupil

Back 40

found opening in iris. controls light entering the eye

pupillary constrictor- smooth muscles to help diamater of pupil control. decreases diameter.

pupillary dialator- contractile epitheleal cells. myoepitheleal cells.

Front 41

fovea centralis

Back 41

posterior area of retina. highest visual acuity. cones

Front 42

blind spot

Back 42

area anterior to optic nerve. no photreceptors

Front 43

panramic vision

Back 43

wide field of view. good PV means you lose good depth perception

Front 44

binocular vision

Back 44

limited FOV but excellent in depth perception

Front 45

tapetum lucidum

Back 45

reflective tissue imbedded behind retina to catch and reflect light back to retina. have diff colors that reflect back

Front 46

photoreceptros

Back 46

rods, cones

Front 47

rods

Back 47

for dim light and periphereal vision. non sharp images. turn sideways for better view

Front 48

cones

Back 48

for bright light and high visual acuity. categories based on wavelength

s- short, blue

m-medium, greens

l- long , see red

Front 49

color blindness

Back 49

genetic, x linked, 8-10% males have it. lack of cone types. males are XY and females are XX. females have two dominant X so one cancels the bad one out. males dont have this so if X is defective they have it regardless of Y

Front 50

myopia

Back 50

near sightedness- distant objects focus in front of the retina. use concave

Front 51

hyperopia

Back 51

far sighted ness. distant objects focus beyond the retina. use convex

Front 52

glaucoma

Back 52

pressure in the eye compresses the retina or the optic nerve. leads to blindness

Front 53

cataracts

Back 53

hardening or clouding up of the lens. treatable. VIT c helps

Front 54

stigmatism

Back 54

unequal curves of the cornea or lens

Front 55

retinal

Back 55

light sbsorbing molecules that is capable of translating light into electrical signals. vit A helps.

Front 56

opsin

Back 56

protein that combines with retinal to form the four pigments of the eye

Front 57

rhodopsin

Back 57

purple pigment of rods. accumulates in dim light and requires little light to stimulate rods

Front 58

light adaptation

Back 58

going from dark to light. full bleaching of rods causes white blurry glare until adjusted

Front 59

dark adaptation

Back 59

from light to dark at first retina cant form any images. going from cones to rods. no sufficient light to stimulate cones. rhodopsin builds and rods are activated

Front 60

hearing pathway

Back 60

external auditory canal à tympanic membrane à malleus, incus, stapes àoval window àscala vestibuli àscalamedia àOrgan of Corti (hair cells and nerves) àscala tympani àroundwindow (reverse flow)

Front 61

vertigo

Back 61

feelingof dizziness or nausea caused by inner–a.caused by inflammation or–b.mechanical damage to equilibrium structures (ampulla, semicircular canals, orvestibule

Front 62

tinnitus

Back 62

ringingor clicking sound inabsence ofnoise–a.symptom of inflammation–b.side effect to some meds (ie. aspirin)–c.symptom of sensorineuraldeafness

Front 63

.sensorineuraldeafness

Back 63

damageto neural structures of inner ear (ie. Cochlear hair cells)–a.loud sound–b.prolonged exposure to > 90 dB–- canget cochlear implant in severe cases

Front 64

ottis media

Back 64

middleear infection-very common in kids due to auditory canal

Front 65

conduction deafness

Back 65

blockage of sound propagation–a.earwax–b.ruptured eardrum (tympanic membrane)–c.otitis media

Front 66

external ear

Back 66

pinna, lobule, external auditory meatus, ceruminus glands

Front 67

middle ear

Back 67

tympanic membrane (ear drum)- conduct mechanical sound waves to ear ossicles

malleus, incus, stapes, auditory tube (eustacian) connects middle ear to nasopharynx

Front 68

inner ear

Back 68

bony labyrinths- hold perilymph

vestibule - egg cavity

cochlea-snail, pea sides, chamber of bony. nerves receptors for hearing

semicircular canals-attach to vestibule.

oval window- stapes connects to inner ear cochlea and creates waves in perilymph of scala vesetibule

round window- receives sound waves from scala tympaniinferior to oval window, equalizing pressure

Front 69

inner ear

Back 69

membranous labyrinths- endolymph

scala media- cochlearduct -containsOrgan of Corti haircells, stereocilia,& nerves -containsTectoral& Basilar Membranes

Front 70

stapedius

Back 70

skeletal msucle attaches to stapes and when contracted pulls stapes away from tympanic membrane. dampen sound

Front 71

tensor tympani

Back 71

attaches to mallus and pulls it medially in contraction and tesnes tympanic membrane dampen sound

Front 72

tympanic relfex

Back 72

adaptationto soften very loud sounds to protect inner ear.

Front 73

sound

Back 73

pressure disturbance made by vibrating object. measured in waves

Front 74

frequency

Back 74

number of waves that passes at a given point in a given time.

high- shorter waves and more pass

low- long waves and fewer pass

human hearing range= -0.2 to 20 khz. best at 1.5-4 khz

Front 75

pitch

Back 75

how we percieve different frequencies . can detect .002-.003 khz difference.

Front 76

amplitude

Back 76

intensity (loudness) of sound

Front 77

decibels

Back 77

units of measuring sound amplitude. dB.

normal convo- 50 db

noisy- 70 db

over 90 causes hearing loss.

threshold for sound to be percieved as pain is 120 db. concerts are around this.

Front 78

pinna and lobules

Back 78

collect sound

Front 79

ear ossicles

Back 79

malleus incus stapes. conduct mechanical sound waves to inner ear

Front 80

nystagmus

Back 80

involuntary rapid eye movement

Front 81

ten cranial nerves

Back 81

olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear,trigeminal, abduceas, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharnygeal, vagus, accesory, hypoglosseal

OOO, tiny testes always fudge vags gay vags are hideous

Front 82

function of the cranial nerves

Back 82

some, say, mary, money, but (both), my, brother, says, big, brains, matter, more

Front 83

functions of the nerves:

Back 83

olfactory-smell

optic- vision

oculomotor- eye movement

trochlear- eye movement

trigeminal- S=tppt in head m=chewing

abduceus- eye movement

facial- s=taste m=facial expression,

vestibulococlear- hearing, ane equilibrium

glossopharyngeal- s=taste tppt m=swallow, speech, auton

accessory- swallowing and head move

hypoglosseal- tongue move and speech and swallow

Front 84

hypothalamus

Back 84

makes 6 hormones that regulate anterior pituitary and two that it stores in posterior pituitary

Front 85

hypothalamu hormones

Back 85

growth hormone releasing hormone= promotes secretion of GH from anterior piruitary gland which makes the GH

somatostatin- inhibits secretion of GH and TSH (from pituitary). this and GHRH are antagonistic

oxytocin- causes uterin contractions and lactation. pair bonding in both sexes. stored in post pit.

antidiuretic ADH- vasopressin. acts on nephrons in kidneys to retain water. regulate BP. put ADH in system to add water to blood or to raise BP. stored and released by post pit.

Front 86

pituitary glands

Back 86

two lobes that act separetely

Front 87

anterior

Back 87

makes 6 hormones. know 4

follicle stimulating hormone- sexually dimorphic. females stimulates secretion of sex hormones and follicle production in ovairies, estrogen, preogesterone. in males it stimulates sperm productions and acts on testes

lutinizing hormone- females promotes ovulation, males signals secretion of testosterone

thyroid stimulating- stimulates thyroid gland to release TH

growth hormone- acts on bones, skeletal system for growth

Front 88

dificiencies in growth hormone

Back 88

hyper before puberty- causes gigantism

hyper after puberty- acromelegaly- big head

hypo before puberty- putuitary dwarfism all proportional but the head

Front 89

posterior pituitary

Back 89

stores only ADH and oxytocin

Front 90

pineal gland

Back 90

melatonin, sets carcadian rhythm

Front 91

thyroid

Back 91

effects all cells but brain, spleen, testes, uterus, and thyroid glands. makes thyroid hormone. which combines with iodine to make thyroxine and triiodotohorine (active).

hyposecretion- myxedemal (lack iodine) causes goiters

hyper secretion- graves disease ( inc metabolism, heart palp, big eyes)

Front 92

parathyroid

Back 92

parathormone, controls blood CA levels, vit D inactive when ingested or produced by skin, stimulates kidneys to met vit D into active form (calcitriol). hypersecretion- hypercalcemia- inc blood CA depressed NS and causes kidney stones

Front 93

thymus

Back 93

thymosin- inc T lymphocytes and mautres them until puberty then atrophies

Front 94

adrenal

Back 94

adrenal medulla- epi, norepi, dopamine

adrenal cortex- 30 hormones from cholestoral. aldosterone (H20), glucocortoids (stress cortisols), test, estrogen

Front 95

pancreas

Back 95

endocrine and exocrine functions. secrestes hormone and digestive enxymes

Front 96

insulin in pancreas

Back 96

produced by beta cells. signals uptake of sugar, reduces blood sugar, takes sugar from blood to cells

Front 97

glucagon in pancreas

Back 97

made my alpha cells. stimulates breakdown of glycogen into glucos. inc blood sugar

Front 98

type 1 diabetes

Back 98

juvenille, genetic. 5-10% cases. beta cells are faulty and dont make insulin. makes lots of glucose so they have to take insulin

Front 99

type 2 diabetes

Back 99

adult onset- indulin resistance. 90% cases. leading causes are enviro

Front 100

stats

Back 100

1990-6.6 mill, 2012-29 mill. symptoms urination, thirsty, fatigue, blurry vision, numbness

7th leading cause of death, 9% pop has it

Front 101

causes for type 2

Back 101

DIET, EXERCISE, GENETIC LINKS. 36 genes contribute

Front 102

gestational diabetes

Back 102

develops in pregnancy. 24 week mark. baby makes mom insulin resistant. fetal problems. goes away after pregnancy

Front 103

glands and locations

Back 103

brain- hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal

throat- thyoid, parathyroid

thoracic cavity- thymus

abdominal cavity-pancreas, adrenal glands

pelvic- ovaries, ,testes

Front 104

endocrine system

Back 104

regulatesphysiological processes of body via chemicals (hormone-like neurotransmitters,paracrines, or regular hormones)

Front 105

cell to cell communication in system

Back 105

1. gap junctions – most cells in body use

2.neurotransmitters – chemical messengers 3.paracrines – chemical messenger whose effects are restricted to the immediate vicinity of the cells thatsecrete it. AKA “local hormones”

4. hormones – chemical messengers that is secreted into the bloodstream& can trigger physiological response inDISTANT cells

Front 106

hormones

Back 106

1. produced by endocrine glands

2.carried in circulatory system (blood plasma) 3.react with specific receptors = receptor specific! Example: Thyroid StimulationHormone (TSH) can only react with the Thyroid Gland

Front 107

functional effects of hormones

Back 107

1. kinetic– can cause muscle contraction & glandular secretions 2.metabolic – increase or decrease rate of biological processes 3.morphogenic – changes in growth & differentiation (1 cell-type to another) example: blood cell precursor Myeloblast can become basophils, eosinophils, or neutrophils (specific typesof white blood cells) 4.behavioral – effect the NS to cause behavioral changes (can be mild, moderate to DRASTIC behavioral changes!).Think PMS for some females.

Front 108

exocrine

Back 108

secrete products into an organ OR onto the bodysurface (usually uses ducts to deliver theproduct) examples:holocrine, merocrine, apocrine, sweat, mammary, oil, etc.

Front 109

endocrine glands

Back 109

secrete hormones DIRECTLY into bloodstream*these glandshave a high density of fenestrated capillaries – capillaries with small pores/holes(so they are selectively leaky)

Front 110

specialty glands

Back 110

liver cells (hepatocytes) can act like exocrine & endocrine glands!!!

exocrinelike function: secretes bile through ducts into small intestines

endocrinelike function: secretes hormones into blood

otherroles: secretes blood-clotting factors into blood that are NOT hormones

Front 111

endocrine vs nervous sys

Back 111

endocrine- chemical, start time is seconds to days, end time is days to weeks.

nervous- electrical and chemical, milliseconds start to end.

they regulate each other. neuronscan trigger hormone release - hormones can stimulate or inhibitneurons