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157 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
classification of blood vessels
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by size and histological organization
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tunica media
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muscle, largest in artery
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tunica externa
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collagen and elastin
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blood flow
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volume of blood flowing in unit time
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blood pressure
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hydrostatic pressure in arterial system
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circulatory pressure
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pressure difference between base of ascending aorta and entrance to right atrium
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peripheral resistance
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resistance of arterial system as effected by vascular resistance, viscosity and turbulence
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turbulence
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resistence due to irregular swirling movement of blood at high flow rates or exposure to irregular surfaces
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vascular resistance
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friction between blood and vessel wall effected by vessel diameter
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venous pressure
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hydrostatic pressure in venous system
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flow is proportional to
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pressure gradient and 1/resistance
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resistance is proportional to
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1/radius^4
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elastic arteries
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conducting, near to heart; large vessels, pulmonary truck, aorta
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muscular arteries
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distribution arteries; medium sized, tunica media has many muscle cells
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arterioles
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small, little to no tunica externa, thin or incomplete tunica media
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aneurysm
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bulge in arterial wall, caused by weak spot in elastic fibers, pressure may rupture vessel
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continuous capillaries
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endothelial cells all connected to each other, end of artery
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fenestrated capillaries
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have pores between endothelial cells, large things can move across
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venule
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nein, externa and endothelium but no tunica media
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capillary structure
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only tunica intima, diameter size of red blood vessel
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sinudoidal capillaries
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gaps between adjacent endothelial cells; in liver, spleen bone marrow, endocrine organs. permit free exchange or h2o and large proteins, monitored by phagocytic cells
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precapillary sphincter
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guards entrance to each capillary, opens and closes causing capillary blood flow in pulses
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arteriovenous anastromosis
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skip over tissues
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collaterals
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multiple arteries that contribute to one capillary bed, allow circulation if one artery is blocked
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angiogenesis
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formation of new blood vessels, vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates growth. occurs in embryo tissues and in response to factors released by cells
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vasomotion
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contraction/relaxation cycle to move blood in capillaries
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veins
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big, low blood pressure
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vein valves
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folds of tunica media, prevent blood from flowing backward, push blood forward
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distribution of blood
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30-35% in heart, arteries and capillaries, 60-65% in venous system
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capacitance
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ability to strech
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pressure gradient
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difference between pressure at heart and pressure at peripheral capillary beds
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flow
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proportional to pressure difference divided by resistance
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pulse pressure
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difference between systolic and diastolic pressure
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mean arterial pressure
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diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure because 1/3 time spent in systole and 2/3 in diastole. avg pressure on arteries
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hypertension
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140/90
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normal BP
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120/80
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elastic rebound
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arterial walls stretch in systole and rebound in diastole
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filtration
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driven by hydrostatic pressure, water and small solutes forced through capillary wall, leaves larger solutes in bloodstream
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reabsorption
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result sof osmotic pressure
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blood colloid osmotic pressure
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equals pressures required to prevent osmosis caused by suspended blood proteins that are too large to cross capillary walls
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movement out
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CHP greater than BCOP, creates positive NFP (arterial)
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movement in
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CHP is less than BCOP so negative NFP (venous)
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net capillary colloid osmotic pressure
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difference between blood colloid osmotic pressure and interstitial fluid colloid pressure
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net filtration pressure
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difference between net hydrostatic pressure and net osmotic pressure
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CHP
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capillary hydrostatic pressure
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hemorrhaging
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reduced CHP and NFP increasing reabsorption of interstitial fluids
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dehydration
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increases BCOP accelerates reabsorption
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edema
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increase in CHP or BCOP causing fluid to move out of blood and build up in peripheral tissues
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tissue perfusion
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blood flows through tissues brings O2 and nutrients carries away CO2 and waste
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autoregulation of cardiac output and BP
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immediate, localized, homostatic adjustments
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neural regulation of BP and cardiac output
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respond quickly to changes at specific sites
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endocrine mechanisms of regulating BP and cardiac output
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direct, long-term changes
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local vasodilators
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high CO2 or low O2, low pH, high H+, nitric oxide, high K+, chemicals released by inflammation, elevated local temperatures. controlled by cholenergenic nerves (NO)
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local vasoconstrictors
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constict single capillary bed by damaged tissues, constrict precapillary sphincters. controlled by arenogenic nerves
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vasomotor tone
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produced by constant action of sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves
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baroreceptor reflexes
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respond to changes in blood pressure, increases to lower BP, inhibited when BP falls. in walls of carotid sinuses, aortic sinuses and right atrium
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chemoreceptor reflexes
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respond to changes in chemical composition particulary pH and dissolved gases. in carotis bodies and aortic bodies
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central chemoreceptors
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monitor cerebral spinal fluid
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angiotensin II
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responds to fall in renal blood pressure, stimulates aldesterone, ADH, thirst, cardiac output and peripheral vasodilation
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short term response to BP drop
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sympathetic activation and release of adrenal hormones E and NE to increase cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstriction
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long term response to BP drop
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kidneys release renin to activate angiotensin II, erythropoeitin released
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erythropoeitin
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increases RBC production
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natrial natriuretic peptides
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produced by cells in right atrium
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brain natriuretic peptides
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produced b ventricular muscle cells
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natriuretic peptides
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respond to excessive diastolic stretching, lowers blood volume and pressure, lowers blood sodium via urine
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light exercise
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extensive vasodilation occurs increasing circulation, venous return increases with muscle contraction, increased cardiac output
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heavy exercise
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activates sympathetic nervous system, increase cardiac output to max, restrict blood flow to nonessential organs, redirect to skeletal muscle, lungs, heart, blood to brain doesn't change
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shock
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short term compensates until 20% of blood volume is lost, failure to restore leads to shock
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compensated shock
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body is coping
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blockage of coronary blood flow
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angina, tissue damage, heart failure, death
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pathogens
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microscopic organisms tat cause disease, viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, each attacks in specific way
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immunity
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product of all body cells, not just lymphocytes
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lymph
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fluid similar to plasma but no plasma proteins; connective tissue
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function of lymphnotic system
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to produce, maintain and distribute lymphocytes
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production of lymphocytes
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in lymphoid tissues, lymphoid organs, red bone marrow
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lymphatic capillaries
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small, single celled walls. differ from blood in: start as pockets not tubes, larger diameters, thinner walls, flat or irregular outline, one way not loop
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lymphatic flow
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from capillaries to larger lymphatic vessels containing one way valves, travel with veins
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lymph fluid circulation
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blood plasma to lymph and back to venous system, transports hormones, nutrients and waste
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lymphocyte circulation
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blood to interstitial fluid through capillaries returns to venous blood through lymphatic vessels
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lacteals
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special lymphatic capillaries in small intestine to transport lipids from digestive tract
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thoracic duct
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expands into cisterna chyli (receives lymph from right and left lumbar trunks, intestinal trunk) empties into left subclavian vein
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lymphatic duct
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collects lymph from right trunks, empties into right subclavian vein - only drais upper right half of body
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lymphedema
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blockage of lymph drainage from a limb causing severe swelling, interferes with immune function
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lymphocytes
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20-30% circulating WBC/leukocytes
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T Cells
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thymus dependent lymphocyte, created in bone marrow, 80% circulating lymphocytes, cell mediated immunity
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cytotoxic T cell
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kill cells infected with virus
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memory T cell
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respond to foreign substance and remain in circulation
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helper T cell
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mediator, stimulates immune by stimulating T cell and B cell
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suppressor T cell
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mediator, inhibits immune T and B cells to control response
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B cells
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antibody mediated response, 10-15% circulating lymphocytes, differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells
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antigens
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targets that identify any pathogen or foreign compound
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immunoglobulins
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antibodys, the binding of a specific antibody to antigen initiates antibody-mediated immunity to destroy
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natural killer cells
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5-10% of circulating lymphocytes, responsible fr immunological surveillance, large and granular, attack foreign cells, virus infected cells and cancer
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lymphopoiesis
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involves bone marrow, thymus, peripheral lymphoid tissues,
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hemocytoblasts
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in bone marrow; lymphoid stem cells
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group I stem cells
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remain in bone marow and develop with help of stromal cells to produce B and NK
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group II stem cells
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develop in thymus, produce T cells and are environmentally isolated by blood thymus barrier
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B cell differentiation
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triggered with exposure to hormone cytokine (interleukin-7)
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t cell differentiation
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triggered with exposure to several thymic hormones
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lymphoid nodule
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areolar tissue with densely packed lymphocytes with center of dividing lymphocytes
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tonsils
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palatine tonsil, lingual tonsil, pharyngeal tonsil (adnoid)
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appendix
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mass of fused lymphnoid nodules
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outer cortex of lymph node
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B cells
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deep cortex fo lymph node
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T cells
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medulla of lymph node
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rapidly dividing cells, germinative center
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dendritic cells
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marcophages on outside of lymph node that present pathogens to immune system
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thymus
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in mediastinum, atrophies after puberty, diminishing effectiveness of immune system 2 lobes divided into septa
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thymosin
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extract from thymus that promotes development of lymphocytes
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functions of spleen
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removal of abnormal blood cells and other blood components by phagocytosis, storage of iron, initiate of immune response by B cells and T cells in response to antigens in blood. only organ that filters blood and lymph
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nonspecific defenses
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physical barriers, phagocytes, immunological surveillance (NK), interferons, complement, inflammation
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immunological surveillance
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constantly monitors normal tissues with NK cells
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interferons
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chemical messengers that trigger production of antiviral proteins in normal cells, do not kill viruses but block replication
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complement
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system of circulating proteins, assists antibodies in destruction of pathogens, most bacteria
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microphages
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neutrophils and eosinophils, leave bloodstream enter peripheral tissues to fight infections, nonspecific defense
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macrophages
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large derived from monocytes, distributed throughout body, engulf and destroy with enzymes, bind to pathogens so other cells can destroy it, destroy pathogen by releasing toxic chemicals, nonspecific
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special histocytes
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microglia (in CNS), kpeffer cells in liver
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alveolar machrophages
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in alveoli of lung
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activation of NK cells
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identify and attach to abnormal cells, golgi apparatus froms perforin vesicles, vesicles release perforins via exocytosis, perforins lyse abnormal cell's plasma membrane
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immunlogical escape
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cells that escape NK cells
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cytokines
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chemical messangers acting locally and globally as hormone released by activated lymphocytes and macrophages - interferon
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alpha interferon
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produced by WBC to stimulate NK
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beta interferon
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secreted by fibroblasts to slow inflammation
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gamma interferon
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secreted by T cells and NK cells to stimulate macrophage activity
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classical pathway
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fast method, CI binds to antibody attached to antigen, protein works as enzyme causing C3B to attach to cell wall and lyse bacteria
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alternative pathway
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slow method, exposed to antigen, factors P, B and D interact in plamsa to trigger C3B to lyse bacterium, antibody binding not necessary
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membrane attack complex
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5 complement proteins attacking pathogen membrane
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opsonization
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tagging cell to phagocyte and work with antibodies
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fever
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body temp above 37C or 99F, caused by pyrogens (interleukin - 1)
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four properties of immunity
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specific, versatile (many types of lymphocytes), memory, tolerance (ignores normal antigens)
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antigen presentation
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I cells only recognize antigens that are bound to glycoproteins in plasma membranes
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MHC proteins
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membrane gylcoproteins that bind to antigens, genetically coded in chromosome, differs for each individual, self identifying
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class I MHC
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on all nucleated cells, pick up small peptides and carry to surface, T cells ignore normal peptides, viral peptides cause I cell to destroy
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class II MHC
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only on antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes. antigen fragments from antigen processing of pathogens bind to class II protein then inserted into plasma membrane to stimulate T cells
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antigen presenting cells
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APC, responsible for activating T cells against foreign cells and proteins, is not to be destroyed but signals something bad has been present and taken care of
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phagocytic APC
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fixed and free machrophages, kupffer cells, microglia
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nonphagocytic APC
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langerhans cells in skin, dendritic cells in lymph noes and spleen
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antigen recognition
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inactive T cell receptors recognize class I or II MHC proteins, binding occurs when MHC protein matches antigen
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CD markers
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in T cell membranes molecular mechanism of antigen recognition, more than 70 types
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CD3
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receptor complex found in all t cells
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CD8
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found on cytotoxic T cells and suppressor T cells, respond to antigens on Class I MHC proteins
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CD4
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found on helpter T cells, respond to antigens on class II MC proteins
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MHC
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major histocompatibility complex
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costimulation
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for T cell to be activated it must be costimulate by binding to stimulating cell at second site which confirms first signal
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activation of CD8 cells
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exposure to antigens, one responds quickly to produce cytotoxic and memory T cells, other responds slowly to produce suppressor T cells - respond to Class I
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activation of CD4 cells
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activate helper T cells, secrete cytokines, memory helper T cells remain in reserve
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four functions of cytokines
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stimulate division of T cells, attract and stimulate macrophages, increase activity of cytotoxic T cells, promote activation of B cells
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B cell sensitization
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antigen taken up by B cell, processed and reappear on surface bound to class II MHC protein
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plasma cells
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large, pump out large amount of antibodies, from B cells
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antibody structure
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two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains (one heavy one light) each chain had constant and variable segment
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hapten
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partial antigen, must attach to a carrier molecule to act as a complete antigen, carrier also attacked (penicillin allergy)
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5 classes of antibodies
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determined by constant segments, have no effect on antibody specificity
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IgG
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largest, most diverse class of antibody, 80%
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IgE
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attach to basophil and mast cells, role in allergy
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IgD
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role in sensitization, bind antigens
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IgM
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1st secreted after antigen encounter
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IgA
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secreted in tears, salica, mucous, breast milk to stop pathogen before they enter body
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oncotic pressure
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osmotic pressure exerted by proteins in blood plasma that usually pulls water into circulatory system
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