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222 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Another name for muscle cells
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Muscle fibers
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Four basic characteristics of muscle tissue
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contractability, excitability, extensibility, elasticity
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Types of muscles
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Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac
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Is skeletal striated or non-striated?
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striated
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Skeletal muscles pull or push bones?
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pull
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Is skeletal voluntary?
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yes
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Is cardiac striated?
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yes
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Is cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary
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involuntary
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What does cardiac muscle do?
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Contractions cause the heart to beat, which propels blood though the blood vessels
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What does skeletal muscle do?
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Pull bones causing movements around joins
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Is smooth muscle striated or non-striated?
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non-striated
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What does smooth muscle do?
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Propels substances through certain organs
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Blood vessels, digestive organs, urinary organs, and reproductive organs are lined with what kind of muscle?
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smooth muscle
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What does peristalsis do?
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Propels food from one end of the digestive tract to another
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Movement of the body and materials within the body are functions of what types of muscle?
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Smooth and skeletal
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What is thermoregulation?
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heat generation during muscle contraction
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Thermoregulation is a function of what type of muscle
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Skeletal
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Posture, body and organ support, protection from injury are functions of what type of muscle
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Skeletal
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Cardiovascular pump is a function of what type of muscle
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Cardiac
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Stabilization and strengthening of joints are functions of what type of muscle?
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skeletal
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What are myofilaments?
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Proteins, actin and myosin, that fill most of the cell
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What are 3 common structures for all muscle types?
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myofilaments, sarcolemma, sarcoplasma
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How does actin filaments work?
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The actin filaments can slide past the myosin filament using the energy of ATP, thus shortening [contracting] the muscle.
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What is sarcolemma?
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The plasma membrane of a muscle cell; specific to the muscle cell
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What is sarcoplasma?
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The cytoplasm of the muscle cell; specific to the cell
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What is epimysium?
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The connective tissue of the muscle
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What is fascia?
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Hypodermis of the skin
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How continuous is the epimysium?
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It is continuous throughout the hypodermis of the skin
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What is a fascicle?
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A bundle of muscle
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What is a perimysium?
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The covering of the fasicle
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What is endomysium?
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Covering the sarcolemma of each cell
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How is the endomysium formed?
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When the perimysium thins and weaves around individual muscle fibers
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What does the epimysium separate?
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individual muscles within a group of muscles
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The epimysium is continuous _____?
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with the tendon of the muscle it covers
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What is a tendon?
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tissue that connects muscles to bone
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What two things cover skeletal muscle fibers?
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Sarcolemma and endomysium
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What are myofibrils?
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Tubular units along the long axis of the cell (Skeletal)
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What are sarcomeres?
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The basic structural and function units of contraction in a skeletal muscle cell
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Myofilaments
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Constructed from thick and thin filaments
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Actin
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Protein; thin filaments
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Myosin
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Thick protein filaments;
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What do actin and myosin do?
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Cause muscle contraction
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What are sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubules?
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specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum and myofibrils that aid the influx of calcium for coordinated contraction of sacromeres through the myofibrils
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Speed of skeletal muscle
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Rapid, greater force, relaxes rapidly
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Speed of smooth muscle
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Slow to contract, sustains its force of contraction (though weaker) relatively longer than skeletal muscle, relaxes slowly
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what is the Neuromuscular Junction?
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The connection between the sarcolemma of the skeletal muscle and the innervating terminal synaptic end bulbs of a motor axon
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ACH pathway within NMJ
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The ACh receptors of the sarcolemma that respond to the ACh from the axon are the motor end plate. The ACh affects protein channels in the sarcolemma and starts the contraction. AChE within the synaptic cleft stops the effect of the ACh
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Motor Unit
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Somatic motor axon and its branches that contact motor end plates
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What is the origin of a muscle?
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The proximal and/or most stable portion of a muscle; tendon usually attaches to a bone
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What is the insertion of a muscle?
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The distal and/or most mobile portion of a muscle; tendon attaches to bone or to special CT
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What is aponeurosis?
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Flat sheet of CT
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What is the belly of skeletal muscle?
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the region of contraction
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What is action of a skeletal muscle
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When contraction occurs between the origin and insertion (e.g. flexion, abduction, rotation, etc)
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Functional classification
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amount of mobility
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structural classification
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type of tissue that binds the joint and whether or not the joint has a joint cavity
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Types of functional classification
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synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses
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Types of structural classification
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Fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial
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Types of fibrous Joints
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Suture, syndesmoses, gomphosis
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Types of cartilaginous joints
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Synchrondroses (hyaline cartilage), symphysis (fibrocartilage),
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types of synovial joint
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plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball and socket
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What is a synovial joint
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Bond ends/parts covered with articular cartilage/within an articular capsule lined with a synovial membrane
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6 Common features of a synovial joint
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1. Articular cartilage of hyaline cartilage; absorbs compression
2. Joint of synovial cavity "potential space that holds synovial fluid 3. Articular Capsule - composed of an outer fibrous capsule of dense irregular tissue 4. Synovial fluid - viscous fluid made from blood and fibroblasts that lubricate the jont and nourish the articular cartilage 5. Reinforcing ligaments and articular discs can be extracapsular or intracapsular 6. Nerves and blood vessels - nerves detect pain and movement or stretching; blood supply nourishes tissues and synovial fluid production |
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Proprioception
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determining position for balance
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What are bursae and tendon sheaths
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fibrous coverings that contain synovial fluid and are associated with synovial joints
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Gliding movement
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flat surfaces of two bones slip across each other
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Angular
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The angle between two bones is changed (flexon, extension, abduction, adduction)
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Rotation
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a bone turns around its own long axis (lateral rotation, medial rotation of the thigh)
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What is a formed element?
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Specialized tissue called blood
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Four primary functions of blood
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Transport
Regulates internal chemical environment Clotting Protection and prevention |
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Blood is major contributor of? (primary function of blood)
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Regulation of the internal chemical environment including osmotic pressures, water content of the tissues and thermoregulation
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Transport (primary function of blood)
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nutrients and waste materials, oxygen and carbon dioxide, hormones, enzymes, carrier proteins, minerals, lipids, carbohydrates
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Clotting (primary function of blood)
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reduce blood loss
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Protection and prevention (primary function of blood)
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prevention and protection from the effects of pathogens and toxins
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Composition of blood
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plasma & formed elements
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Plasma composition
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92% water; 7% proteins
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What do proteins in blood plasma aid with
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aid in hyperosmotic pressure to reduce water loss to tussues and maintain blood pressure
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Four Parts of blood plasma proteins
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albumins, globulins, fibrinogens, minerals
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albumin
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transport fatty acids and steroids
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globulins
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for antibodies made from B cells
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What are fibrinogens for?
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for blood clotting
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What are the formed elements in blood
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erythrocytes
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erythrocytes consists of?
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RBCs, WBCs, and thrombocytes
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What do RBCs not have and what does this mean?
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a nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes; means no mitosis and no aerobic respiration
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What is hemoglobin comprised of?
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4 globulin molecules, each with an atom of iron.
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How does hemoglobin pick up oxygen
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the oxygen attaches to the iron in the globulin molecules.
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The RBC's "body" permits what three properties?
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strength, flexibility, and a relatevly large surface area
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What is rouleaux form?
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When RBCs stack themselves like coins
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What does traveling in rouleaux form allow RBCs to do
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they travel through capillaries and can squeeze between cell spaces
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ATP is made by the RBCs through which pathway
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anaerobically
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Where are RBCs removed?
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Macrophages via spleen and liver
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What are two properties of a granulocytes
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All have a lobed nucleus and granules in the cytoplasm
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What are agranulocytes?
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Have large rounded or bean-shaped nucleus without granules
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Types of Granulocytes
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neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils,
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neutrophils
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most numerous, granules are lysogenic enzymes that are neutral to dye; phagocytize pathogenic bacteria and foreign material
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What is pus?
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dead neutrophils
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Eosinophils
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Phagocytic but target allergens or parasites; enzyme granules acid stain red
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Basophils
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rarest; granules stain with basic blue dye; granules source of histamine released in damaged tissue to increase capillary permeability
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Monocytes
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Largest WBC and phagocytic; becomes free macrophage in tissues after leaving the capillaries
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Name the 3 different lymphocytes and what they do
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inclues B, T, and Natural killer cells; part of cellular and antibody immune system against specific pathogens or antigens
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What are antigens
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foreign substance that produces an immune response
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tunica externa
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mostly elastic fibers and collagen fibers that protect the blood vessel and anchor it to surrounding structures. The tunica externa is infiltrated with visceral nerve fibers [Why?] and, in the larger arteries and veins, has its own blood supply, the vasa vasorum, ("vessels of the vessel"), to supply nutrients and O2 to the tissues of the vessel wall
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What is diapedesis?
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When WBCs migrate across the endothelium
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Hematopoeisis/hemopoiesis
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The process of making new blood cells
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What tissue produces RBCs, granulocytes, WBCs, and platelets?
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Myeloid tissue,
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What is the vasa vasorum?
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blood vessel of the blood vessel
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What tissue can produce granulocytes and platelets?
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myeloid and lymphoid tissue
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Active marrow sites in adulthood
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ilia, sternum, and bodies of vertebrae
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3 Properties of Elastic or Conducting Arteries?
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1. Largest arteries with an internal elastic membrane, great amount of elastic tissue in the tunica media and relatively less smooth muscle
2. Largest lumen; allows them to conduct blood from the heart to the muscular arteries 3. Examples? Pulmonary trunk, aorta, brachiocephalic, common carotid, subclavians, and common iliac arteries.. |
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What is the Mediastinum?
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The region between the lungs
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3 Properties of Muscular or Distributing Arteries
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1. Medium to small-sized arteries (arterioles) that distribute blood to specific body parts or organs.
2. Their tunica media contains relatively more smooth muscle and less elastic tissue than elastic arteries. The smooth muscle is also subject to vasoconstriction and vasodilation. 3. Examples: External & internal carotids, axillary, brachial, radial, femoral, tibial. |
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The superior part of the heart is called ?
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The base
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part of the heart that is aimed inferiorly towards the left hip and rests on the diaphram
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apex
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2 Properties of collateral circulation
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1. Venous return to the heart is improved by collateral circulation.
2. Most parts of the body receive blood from more than one arterial branch, called an arterial anastomosis. Arteries that do not anastomose, e.g., those supplying the toes and fingers, are called end arteries. If their blood flow is permanently stopped, the cells supplied will die. Think of the effects of frostbite or diabetes |
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surface of the heart that is the surface of the right atrium and ventricle
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Sternocostal surface
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What is serous pericardium?
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A thin, double-layered serous membrane
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Arterial anastomosis
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receiving blood from more than one arterial branch
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What is the pericardial sac
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a thin, double layered serous membrane
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serous pericardium
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thing, double layered serous membrane
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What are end arteries
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Arteries that do not anastomose
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External layer of the double layer of the heart
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parietal pericardium
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What is visceral pericardium
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where the parietal layer reflects over the hearts surface; also known as epicardium
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Pericardial cavity
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potential space between the visceral and parietal pericardia
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Four properties of capillaries
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1. The average lumen diameter is 0.01 mm (10 microns), large enough for RBCs to slip through in single file or in roleaux formation.
2. Purpose: Exchange nutrients, O2/ CO2 and waste products with cells 3. Precapillary smooth muscle sphincters can constrict, cutting off blood flow through the preferred channel of a capillary bed; instead blood flows through the arteriovenosus anastomoses . This is also called vasoconstriction. 4. Capillaries may be continuous, fenestrated or sinusoids. What are the microanatomical differences called clefts or fenestrae? In what organs would each of these types of capillaries be found? |
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What does the serous fluid within the pericardial cavity do?
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lubricates the visceral and parietal pericardia membranes so they can glide smoothly against one another during the heartbeat
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Four types of arteries that transport blood away from the heart
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1. Elastic or conducting arteries
2. Muscular or distributing arteries 3. Collateral circulation 4. Capillaries |
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What is the fibrous pericardium and what does it do?
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a thick, dense CT covering the pericardial sac; attaches the heart to the diaphram and to the great blood vessels that exit the base
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What is the myocardium
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The middle layer of the heart wall; mostly cardiac muscle
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Most of the blood are in the ____?
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Veins 65%-70%
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What is the fibrous skeleton
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Connective tissue that binds myocardium into bundles
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What is the endocardium?
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the inner epithelial layer lining the myocardium
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Why do veins return blood to the heart without BP?
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1. Large size of the lumen offers little resistance to blood flow
2. One way valves in extremeties stop blood from flowing backwards 3. Skeletal muscle compresses veins to push blood to heart |
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What are intercalculated discs?
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A result of adjacent cellular plasma membranes that interlock with the aid of intermediate filaments.
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Heart's right side pump is known as the
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Pulmonary circuit
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Heart's left side pump is known as the
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Systemic Circuit
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Venous valves
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values that stop backflow of blood in veins
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Two chambers of the cardiovascular pump have
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atrium and ventricle
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Describe the pulmonary pump
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Blood returning from the body is O2 poor, CO2 rich
Blood enters RA -> RV Pumps blood to pulmonary arteries to the lungs for gas exchange, adding O2 and removing CO2 Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins |
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The liver receives the blood from which two vessels?
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Hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein
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Describe the systemic circuit pump
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Blood in the
LA -> LV LV -> Aorta Aorta branches into systemic arteries, then into increasingly smaller arterties, then finally into capillaries that carry blood to body tissues |
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Hepatic artery delivers _______ blood for the liver cells
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oxygenated
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Describe blood returning from capillaries to the heart
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O2 deficient blood goes into increasingly larger veins that merge to empty blood into superior or inferior vena cava, which delivers blood to RA
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Left and right atria are separated by?
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interartrial septum
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Atria musculature thin- or thick- walled?
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Thin walled
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Which veins do the hepatic portal vein collect blood from?
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Superior messenteric vein
Inferior messenteric vein Splenic vein |
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Apex is formed by the?
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Left ventricle
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What does the superior messenteric vein do?
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Drains the small intestine, portions of the large intestine, and the stomach
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Describe cardiac cycle
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1. Atria contract (systole) & then relax
2. Ventricles contract (systole) while atria relax (diastole) 3. All four chambers relax |
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The right AV valve
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tricuspid valve
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The left AV valve
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bicuspid valve
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what does the inferior messenteric vein do?
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drains the lower large intestine
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Collagenous cords that anchor the cusps to the papillary muscles protruding from the ventricular walls
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chordae tendineae
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lubb dub is produced by?
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bicuspid and tricuspid valves (lub)
semilunar valves (dub) |
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What does the splenic vein do?
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drains blood from the spleen, stomach, pancreas, and large intestine
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The pacemaker of the heart
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Sinoatrial node (SA node); a small mass of specialized cells in the right atrial wall inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava; sets the RESTING heart rate
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What can stimulate an increase in heart rate?
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1. nerve impulses from sympathetic nervous system
2. noreprinephrine in the blood from the adrenal gland |
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Hepatic portal vein ______ blood from the veins
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collects
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Describe the electrical conduction system (pathway) of the heart
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SA node-> AV node -> bundle of HIS -> branch to L&R bundle branches -> Purkinje fibers
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2 Properties of sinusoids
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Relatively large lumens and incomplete endothelial linings
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Impulse is received by the AV node in the?
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inferior interatrial septum
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SA node impulses travel along the?
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cardiac muscle cells via the intercalated discs
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Purkinje fibers stimulates the?
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ventricular myocardium
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What is a portal system?
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venous system that moves blood from capillaries to veins to capillaries
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Bundle of his stimulates the?
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interventricular septum
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What are the three basic types of blood vessels?
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arteries, capillaries, and veins
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How many arteries and veins does the umbilical cord consit of?
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two unbilical arteries and one umbilical vein
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All blood vessels have what kind of epithelium?
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simple squamous epithelium aka endothelium
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What is the ductus venosus?
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A vascular shunt allowing most of the blood to bypass the fetal liver circulation; empties into inferior vena cava
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All capillaries are how thick?
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one cell thick
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What is the smallest branch of artieries?
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arterioles
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How many layers do blood vessels have? (except capillaries)
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3 capillaries
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Blood from the RA of a fetus mostly flows to the? (Describe pathway)
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foramen ovale -> LA -> LV; most blood bypasses the RV
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Name the three layers of blood vessels
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1. inner layer = tunica interna
2. middle layer = tunica media 3. outer layer = tunica externa |
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What happens to the foramen ovale after birth?
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It becomes the fossa ovalis
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tunica interna
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endothelium with an overlying connective tissue with some elastic fibers. The endothelium is a continuation of the endocardial lining of the heart, the only common layer in all blood vessels, including the capillaries
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What is the tunica media?
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mostly circular smooth muscle and some elastic c.t., responds to the sympathetic n.s. causing vasoconstriction. Vasodilation occurs when the sympathetic ceases innervation.
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What happens to the blood that does enter the RV of a fetus?
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it is pumped into the pulmonary trunk, where the ductus arteriosus sends most of the blood into the aorta, bypassing the lungs again
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What happens to the ductus arteriosus after birth?
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it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
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What is lymph?
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Fluid collected by lymph capillaries from leaky capillary and cell fluid
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Lymph is not drained from the?
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brain, avascular tissue, or marrow
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Describe the path of lymph
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capillaries -> lymphatic vessels -> larger lymph vessels, ducts -> returned to the circulatory system
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What is Lymphoid tissue
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Any tissue that produces B lymphocytes; may be in the form of nodes or nodules
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Where are nodes found?
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in the lymphatic tissue
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Where are nodules found?
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in the intestinal lining or respiratory lining; Mucosa-Associated Lyphatic Tissue (MALT)
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What is Mucosa-Associated lymphatic Tissue?
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Nodules found in the intestinal lining or respiratory tract
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What is the smallest lymphoid organs?
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Lymph nodes containing nodules.
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Spleen
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Removes RBCs and WBCs
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What is "red pulp"
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is a reservoir and remover of RBCs in the spleen
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What does the thymus do?
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it is the source of T lymphocytes; receives pre-T lymphocytes from bone marrow
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What do B lymphocytes do?
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produce specific antibodies when activated by antigens
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What enters the Lymphatic capillaries?
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interstitial fluid, ions, some nutrients and proteins and WBCs
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What permits the different substances to enter the lymphatic capillaries?
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one-way valves
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What makes circulation possible in lymph vessels?
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Muscle contraction and movement (e.g. milking the vessels)
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What kind of muscle is in the larger lymph vessels?
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Smooth muscle
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Describe the pathway of lymph in Lymphatic vessels
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Lymph capillaries -> lypmph collecting vessels ->
Lymph nodes-> lymphatic trunks-> Lymphatic Ducts Right lymphatic ducts drains the right superior quarter of the body -> right subclavian vein Rest of the body is drained into thoracic duct -> left subclavian vein Thoracic duct drains the lower appendages and abdomen and thorax through the **cisterna chyli** |
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What processes are involved in respiration?
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pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration
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What is pulmonary ventilation?
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it involves inhalation and exhalation
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External respiration
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gas exchange between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood
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Internal respiration
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gas exchange between the blood and tissue cells
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External nares
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nose entrance
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What are the external nares lined with?
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skin that contains coarse hairs that filter large particles from inhaled air
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What are the nasal cavities, the sides, conchae, and ethmoid lined with?
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ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with many goblet cells
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What do goblet cells secrete in the nasal cavities?
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mucus that contains lysozymes
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What do the capillaries in the CT below the mucous membrane of the nose do?
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Heat incoming air that swirls around the conchae and ethmoid
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What are the three subdivisions of the pharynx?
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nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
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Where is the nasopharynx?
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posterior to the nasal cavities and extends to the level of the soft palate
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What mucous membrane does the oropharynx consist of?
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nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
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What mucous membrane does the laryngopharynx consist of?
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nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
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What is the larynx composed of?
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9 pieces of cartilage, mostly made of hyaline;
1. Thyroid cartilage 2. Epiglottis 3. True and false vocal cords |
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What does the thyroid cartilage contain?
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the laryngeal eminence which is on the anterior median surface
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What is the laryngeal eminence?
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Adam's apple
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What do the false vocal cords do?
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help hold your breath when they are brought together
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What do true vocal cords do?
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Have elastic tissue and vibrate to produce sound as air passes upwards from the lungs;
Skeletal muscles attach to arytenoids and other cartilages; tension of cord changes = pitch changes |
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The trachea divides into the
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right and left primary bronchi
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What is the trachea lined with
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ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
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What is the tracheal wall reinforced with?
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C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
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What do the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage in the tracheal wall do?
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allow the esophagus to expand during swallowing
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What part of the lung is the main recipient of inhaled objects?
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the right primary bronchus
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The walls of alveoli contain what type of epithelial cells?
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simple squamous epithelial cells; type I cells
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What do the alveolar and capillary walls form?
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alveolar-capillary membrane
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What do type II cells produce
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surfactant fluid
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what does surfactant fluid do?
|
lowers the surface tension of the alveolar fluid
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What are the prime movers of inspiration?
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The diaphram and external intercostal muscles
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