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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What the three planes of section? |
Frontal Sagittal Transverse/Horizontal |
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What are the two major body cavities? |
Dorsal Body Cavity Ventral Body Cavity |
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What does the dorsal body cavity contain? |
Cranium and vertebral canal (brain and spinal cord) |
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What does the ventral body cavity contain? |
Contains organs of respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems. |
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Anatomy |
The study of the structure and physical relationships of the parts of the body. |
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Physiology |
The study of the function of organs and organ systems |
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Cytology |
The study of structure at the cellular level. |
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Histology |
The study of structure at the tissue level. |
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What two cavities does the thoracic cavity contain? |
Pleural cavity (contains the lungs) Pericardial cavity (contains the heart) |
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What three cavities does the abdominopelvic cavity contain? |
Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity |
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What does the peritoneal cavity contain? |
The cavity is filled with fluid and rests between the body wall and the abdominal cavity and is lined with peritoneal membrane. |
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What does the abdominal cavity contain? |
Contains the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, and most of the large intestine. |
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What does the pelvic cavity contain? |
Contains the last segment of the large intestine, the urinary bladder, and the internal structures of the reproductive system. |
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What is the function of cytoskeleton? |
Strength and support; movement of cellular structures and materials |
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What is the function of microvilli? |
Increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials |
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What is the function of the centrosome and centrioles? |
Essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division; organization of microtubles in cytoskeleton |
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What is the function of cilia? |
Movement of materials over the cell surface. |
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What is the function of Ribosomes? |
Protein synthesis |
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What is the function of mitochondria? |
Produce 95% of the ATP required by the cell. |
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What is the function of the nucleus? |
Control of metabolism; storage and processing of genetic information; control of protein synthesis; Site of rRNA synthesis and assembly of ribosomal subunits. |
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What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum? |
Synthesis of secretory products; intracellular storage and transport; modification and packaging of newly synthesized proteins; lipid, steroid, and carbohydrate synthesis; calcium ion storage. |
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What is the function of the golgi apparatus? |
Storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysomal enzymes. |
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What is the function of a Lysosome? |
Intracellular removal of damaged organelles or of pathogens. |
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What is the function of a peroxisome? |
Catabolism of fats and other organic compounds; neutralization of toxic compounds generated in the process. |
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Which are the non-membraneous organelles? |
-Cytoskeleton -Microvilli -Centrosome -Centroles -Cilia -Ribosomes |
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Which are the membraneous organelles? |
-Mitochondria -Nucleus -Endoplasmic reticulum -Golgi apparatus -Lysosome -Peroxisome |
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What are cell adhesion molecules (CAM)? |
Transmembrane proteins which bind to each other and to other extracellular materials. |
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What is intercellular cement? |
A thin layer or proteoglycans which can hold together membranes of adjacent cells. |
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What are the two major types of cell junctions? |
1. Communicating junctions 2. Adhering Junctions |
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What is cell theory? |
Cells are the fundamental building blocks of all multicellular organisms. |
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What are the 2 corollaries of cell theory? |
1. Cells are produced by cell division of pre-existing cells 2. Cells are the smallest structural units that perform all body functions |
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What are intracellular attachments? |
How cells attach to each other to form tissues |
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What are cell adhesion molecules (CAM)? |
Proteins expressed on the cell membrane that hold the cell membranes of adjacent cells together. |
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What are proteoglycans? |
Intercellular glue/cement or protein sugar complexes which help hold cell membranes together. |
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What are the three major types of intercellular attachements? |
1. Tight junctions (occluding junctions) 2. GAP junctions (communicating junctions) 3. Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) |
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What is a tight junction and where is it found? |
One of the three types of intercellular attachments in which lipid portions of two plasmalemae are tightly bound together by interlocking membrane proteins. They serve to prevent passage of water, etc. between the cells. They are found between the lining of the digestive tract to prevent leakage of acids and enzymes. |
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What is a Gap junction and where is it found? |
It is one of the three types of intercellular attachments in which a pore allows the movement of ions and small molecules from one cell to the other. They are found in between cardiac muscle cells and smooth muscle tissue where they are essential to the coordination of muscle cell contractions. |
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What is a desmosome and where is it found? |
It is one of the three major types of cell attachments which connects extracellular fibers of a connective tissue and attach to basal membrane. It is a strong intracellular attachment and is found in skin. |
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What is Zonula Adherens? |
It is a belt desmosome which extends around the entire circumference of the cell. |
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What is a tissue? |
A collection of cells that perform similar functions. |
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What are the 4 primary tissue types? |
1. Epithelial Tissue 2. Connective Tissue 3. Muscle Tissue 4. Neural Tissue |
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What is an epithelial tissue? |
A type of tissue which consists of cells that form continuous sheets that cover the surfaces of the body. |
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What are 5 characteristics of all epithelial tissues? |
1. They form continuous sheets of cells that cover the entire surface being covered. 2. The cells are structurally polarized: they have an apical end and a basal end 3. They all attach to a basement membrane made up of extracelluar fibers produced by both the epithelial cells and connective tissue 4. They are avascular. Any nutrients have to diffuse through the basal lamina blood vessels in the underling connective tissue. 5. They are able to regenerate if they are damaged because they contain stem cells which are able to undergo cell division to produce new epithelial cells. |
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What are the two types of layering squamous epithelial cells? |
1. Simple squamous epithelia (endothelium of cardiovascular system) 2. Stratiffied squamous epithelia (epidermis of the skin) |
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What are the three types of epithelia cells (based on cell type)? |
1. Squamous epithelia (flat, irregular, nucleus in middle; ex. cells of the epidermis) 2. Cuboidal epithelia (cube shaped cessl, nucleus at center; ex. lining of urinary tract) 3. Columnar epithelia (tall and slender in shape, nucleus located at the end closest to basal lamina; ex. lining of digestive tract) |
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What are the three methods of epithelial cell secretions? |
1. Merocrine method 2. Apocrine method 3. Holocrine method |
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Describe the Merocrine method of epithelial cell secretion: |
A substance is packaged into secretory vesicles which are transported to apical membrane where secretion is released. ex: found in salivary glands |
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Describe the Apocrine method of epithelial cell secretion: |
Secretory vesicles accumulate at the apical end of the cell. Apical end of the cell breaks off. ex: found in mammary glands. |
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Describe the Holocrine method of epithelial cell secretion: |
Cell becomes packed with secretory vesicles until it bursts open releasing secretion. ex: sebaceous gland. |
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What are the three general types of connective tissue? |
1. Connective tissue proper - ECM consists of even mix of extracellular protein fibers and ground substance. (Loose - areolar, adipose, reticular; and dense - tendons and ligaments ) 2. Fluid connective tissues - ECM consists mostly of ground substance. (Blood and Lymph) 3. Supporting connective tissues - ECM consists mostly of extracellular fibers with little ground substance (Cartilage and bone) |
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What are the 3 shared features of connective tissues? |
1. In terms of volume, the cells make up the minority of the tissue. Most of the tissue volume consists of extracellular fibers and fluid. 2. There is an abundance of extracellular protein fibers: collagen, reticular fibers and elastic fibers. 3. There is an extracellular fluid component known as the "ground substance" |
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What 2 things combine to form ECM? |
-extracellular protein fibers (collagen, reticular fibers and elastic fibers) -ground substance |
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What 2 types of tissue combine to form membranes? |
Epithelial Tissue and Connective Tissue |
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What are the 4 types of membranes? |
1. Mucous Membranes 2. Serous Membranes 3. Cutaneous Membranes 4. Synovial Membranes |
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What are the characteristics of mucous membrane and where can it be found? |
Membrane which lines the passages of the body surface and secrete mucous. (digestive system) |
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What are the characteristics of serous membranes and where can it be found? |
Membrane which lines internal body cavities and secretes transudate which causes lubrication allowing sliding across each other with very little friction (abdominopelvic cavity) |
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What are the characteristics of cutaneous membrane and where can it be found? |
Membrane which covers the external body surface (integument) |
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What are the characteristics of synovial membrane? |
Membrane which lines the joint cavities between bones. Synovial fluid (similar to the transudate of serous membranes) it serves as a lubrication of the joint. |
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What is Muscle Tissue? |
Tissue which contains the presence of cells that have the ability to contract. |
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What are the three types of muscle tissue? |
1. Skeletal muscle (aka somatic muscle) - striated; responsible for moving anatomical elements; has numerous peripherally located nuclei 2. Cardiac muscle - striated; makes up most of the muscle of the heart which pushes the blood through the tissue; single centrally located nucleus 3. Smooth muscle - NOT striated; has a single, centrally located nucleus; walls of the digestive tract, blood vessels, urinary bladder, uterus wall, lung interior. |
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What are the characteristics of neural tissue? |
Tissue which is characterized by the presence of cells called neurons specialized for coding information in terms of electrical and chemical cells. |
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What are the two kinds of cells found in neural tissue? |
Neurons - create and conduct signals for coding information Neuroglia - serve as a support function for the neurons. |
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What are the four passive processes by which substances get into and out of cells? |
1. diffusion 2. osmosis 3. filtration 4. facilitated diffusion |
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What are the 4 general functions of the plasmalemma? |
1. Physical isolation 2. Regulation of exchange with the environment 3. Sensitivity 4. Structural support |
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What are the three basic components of connective tissue? |
1. Specialized cells 2. Extracellular protein fibers 3. Ground Substance |
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What is included in the integumentary system? |
This system covers the entire external surface of the body, includes skin, nails, hairs, sweat glands, sebacous glands, and other glands derived and associated with the skin. |
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What are the 7 functions of the Integumenary System? |
1. Provide a physical barrier between the structures of the body and the environment. It prevents dirt, bacteria and microbes from coming in contact with the body. 2. Temperature regulation 3. Waste excretion 4. Site for energy storage of triglycerides and lipids with serves as energy when the body is starving 5. Provide a large sensory surface area 6. Initiates and coordinates immune response 7. To produce Vitamin D3 which is important in calcium absorption in your digestive tract. |
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What are the two major components of the Integumentary System and what makes up each of those? |
1. Cutaneous membrane a. epidermis b. dermis c. hypodermis 2. Accessory structures a. hair b. nails c. glands associated with the integument |
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Of what is the epidermis composed? |
Composed of a stratified squamous epithelium, multiple layers layering on top of the basal lamina. |
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What are the two types of epidermis and where can they be found? |
1. Thick epidermis - (has 5 strata of cells) can be found on soles of the feet and palms of the hands. 2. Thin epidermis - (missing the straum lucidum) covers the rest of the body surface besides palms of hands and soles of feet. |
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What are the 5 strata of thick epidermis? |
Surface 1. Stratum Corneum (thickest with the greatest number of cells) 2. Stratum Lucidum (Smooth shinny appearance, 2-3 cells thick) 3. Stratum Granulosum (3-5 layers thick, most superficial of living cells) 4. Stratum Spinosum (contain button desmosomes) 5. Stratum Germinativm (basal) Basal Lamina Dermis |
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What are the characteristics of the Stratum Germinativm? |
-One cell layer thick -Composed primarily of epidermal stem cells -Continually undergoing cell division to produce new epidermal cells that get pushed up though the more superficial strata -Epidermal stem cells are attached to basal lamina by hemidesmosomes -Also contains the cell bodies of pigment cells called melanocytes |
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What are the characteristics of the Stratum Spinosum? |
-Button desmosomes form between epidermal cells as they move though this stratum. -These desmosomes are connected to tonofilaments in the epidermal cells so they may move as a sheet of cells -Contain langerhan cells (aka dendritic cells) which initiate the immune response when the skin is damaged. -Contain Melanocyte cell bodies and melanocyte cell processes that stem in the stratum germativum |
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What are the characteristics of the Stratum Granulosum? |
-3-5 Cells thick -Most superficial layer of living cells covering the body -Epidermal cells in this strata produce a protein called Keratin. As they move though this stratum they fill with keratin and die. -Also synthesize and secrete lipids that coat the epidermal cells in this stratum -These keratin-filled, lipid coated epidermal cells form a water resistant barrier between the external environment and living cells of the body |
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What are the characteristics of the Stratum Lucidum? |
-Only found in thick skin -2-3 cells thick -Strata has a smooth shinny appearance |
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What are the characteristics of the Stratum Corneum? |
-Most superficial stratum of the epidermis -Thickest stratum (15-30 cells thick) -Callous form as the thickening of the stratum corneum |
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How long does it take for an epidermal cell to move from the stratum germinativum to be shed from the skin surface? |
It takes 15-30 days for an epidermal cell to move from the stratum germinativum to the stratum corneum then another 14 days to reach the surface of the stratum corneum and be shed from the skin surface. |
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What 2 factors determine epidermal color? |
1. Dermal blood supply (there are only blood vessels in the dermis). Increase in blood flow in dermal blood vessels due to dialation of these blood vessels gives the epidermis a more reddish color. 2. Pigment composition and concentration in the epidermal cells. |
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What are the two types of pigment in epidermal cells? |
1. Carotene - orange to yellow in color, comes from vegetables we eat 2. Melanin - varies in color from yellow to brown to black. Produced by the melanocytes in the epidermis. Melanocytes increase melanin production in response to UV light. There is also a genetic component to melanin production. From the anterior pituitary, melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) |
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What are the 2 layers of dermis? |
1. Papillary Layer - Composed of loosely-woven collagen fibers. Also contains blood capilaries of the integument. Contains most of the sensory nerve endings of the integument. Dermal papillae - ridges that poke up into the epidermis. Form the finger prints on finger tips. 2. Reticular Layer - Composed of tightly woven collagen and elastic fibers. Collagen and elastic fibers are arranged in parallel bundles to form the lines of cleavage in the dermis used by surgeons in cutting in surgery. |
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What are the characteristics of hair? |
-Originates from hair follicles that are epidermal extensions into the dermis. -Consists of keratinized epidermal cells that are stacked to form a shaft that extends through the stratum corneum onto the surface of the epidermis. |
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What are the 4 functions of the hairs of the body? |
1. To serve as sensory structures 2. To provide insulation (reduces loss of body heat into the environment) 3. Protection of other tissues ex: eyelashes protect cornea of eye from dust. 4. To increase the surface area for the evaporation of sweat. |
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What are the 3 types of hair on the human body? |
1. Vellus hair - small diameter hair, lacks pigment, aka "peach fuzz" on a person's checks 2. Terminal hair - thick diameter, deeply pigmented. ex: facial hair in men, head hair, eyebrows and pubic hair 3. Intermediate hair - in between vellus and terminal hair in characteristics. ex: hair on arms and legs. |
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What is the function of exocrine glands? |
Excrete substances on the surfaces of an epithelium. |
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What are the two main types of exocrine glands associated with the integument? |
1. Sebaccous glands 2. Sweat glands |
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What are the characteristics of sebaceous glands? |
Excrete onto a hair in a hair follicle or onto surface of epidermis. Oily secretion high in lipids by holocrine method of secretion (they burst). |
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What are the two functions of sebaceous glands? |
1. Prevent desiccation of the epidermis and hair 2. Contains anti-bacteria enzymes and antibodies that prevent bacteria from growing on the surface of epidermis and hairs. |
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What are the characteristics of sweat glands? |
Secrete a watery solution onto the skins surface and hairs for evaporative cooling of the body. |
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What are the two types of sweat glands? |
1. Apocrine sweat glands 2. Merocrine sweat glands |
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What are the characteristics of of apocrine sweat glands? |
-develop during puberty and are primarily found in the armpits, around nipples and groin -actually use merocrine method of secretion -produce body odor when you sweat due to bacteria and hormones |
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What are the characteristics of merocrine sweat glands? |
-Widely distributed but most concentrated on palms and soles of feet. -Secretion is mostly water with some ions. -Primarily used in heat dissipation by evaporative cooling |
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What is the function of mammary glands? |
Produce milk for infant through the apocrine method |
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What is the function of ceruminous glands and where are they found? |
Found in integument of our ear canal. Secrete Cerumin - mix of lipids and pigment granules (ear wax). Function is to trap dust and small insects. |
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What are the characteristics of the hypodermis? |
Composed of loose connective tissue and adipose cells. Provides energy storage and heat. Hypodermic needles reach into the hypodermis. There are no vital organs in the hypodermis and relatively few blood vessels. Injecting into the hypodermis will give a gradual infusion of medication into the blood. |
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What are the characteristics of the nail root? |
Origination of nail. Lies very close to the bone. Grows out. |
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What is the function of the Eponychium? |
It holds onto the nail. |
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What is the Lunula? |
It is the half moon white area that is the result of the blood vessels passing deeper/away from the surface. |
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What is the function of the Hyponychium? |
It provides support for the distal end of the nail. |
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What composes the skeletal system? |
Cartilages Bones Ligaments |
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What are the 5 functions of the skeletal system? |
1. Provides structural support for other tissues 2. Storage site for minerals and lipids 3. Bones have hematopoetic cells (blood stem cells) 4. Provides protection for some tissues. ex: the brain 5. Serves as mechanical levers and fulcrums |
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What is cartilage and of what is it composed? |
Firm, flexible but supportive connective tissue composed of 2 parts. 1. Chondrocytes: cells of the cartilage 2. ECM (ground substance and protein fibers) |
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What are the differences between cartilage and bone? |
- Cartilage is not vascularized (waste products have to diffuse through ECM. - Bone is vascularized. - In adults, most of the chrondrocytes in the cartilages of the body do not undergo cell division so if damaged cartilage cannot repair itself. Bone maintains cells that undergo cell division allowing a bone to repair itself if damaged. -The ECM of cartilage normally doesn't contain calcium salts. This allows it to be highly flexible. Bone ECM has calcium salts giving bone greater rigidity. |
