Anatomy Exam 3

Front 1

Identify the organs forming the respiratory passageways in descending order until you reach the alveoli

Back 1

Nose -> Pharynx -> Larynx -> Trachea -> Primary Bronchi (L/R) -> Secondary bronchi -> Tertiary Bronchi -> Terminal Bronchioles -> Respiratory bronchiole -> Alveolar duct -> alveolar Sac -> Alveoli

Front 2

Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures

Back 2

Conducting zone - respiratory passageways that provide a conduit for air to reach a site of gas exchange. cleanse, humidify, and warm incoming air

Respiratory zone - actual site of gas exchange

Front 3

Describe the makeup of the respiratory membrane and relate structure to function

Back 3

Single layer of squamous epithelium Type I cells with basal lamina - Thin layer that is needed for exchange

Cuboidal Type II - secrete surfactant, removes surface tension, thus preventing collapsing of alveoli

Front 4

Describe the gross structure of the lungs and pleurae

Back 4

Lungs are cone-shaped and are surrounded by pleura. Visceral pleura touch the actual lungs and parietal pleura cover the rest. Between the two layers is fluid

Front 5

Describe the three steps to respiration

Back 5

Pulmonary ventilation: inflow and outflow of air between the atmosphere and lungs

External Respiration: blood in lungs gains O2 and loses CO2

Internal Respiration: Blood in systemic capillaries lose O2 and gain CO2 and tissue cells gain O2 and lose CO2

Front 6

Relate Boyle's law to the events of inspiration and expiration

Back 6

Boyle's law: most of the volume of a gas is empty space. Volume is inversely related to pressure. Inspiration is active process of boyle's because muscles contract and increases lung volume and pressure decreases. In expiration is passive and muscles relax and lung volume decreases and pressure increases.

Front 7

Explain the relative roles of the respiratory muscles, lung elasticity in producing the volume changes, and the effects on collisions of air particles and pressure changes that cause air to flow in and out of the lungs

Back 7

Diaphragm: activated during inspiration. External intercostals: contract during inspiration. Inhalation: pressure in the lungs must be less than the atmospheric pressure, the volume of lungs increase and lower lung pressure. Exhalation: lung pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, volume deccreases and pressure increases

Front 8

Explain why it feels harder to breathe at higher altitudes

Back 8

pressure gradient change. Less pressure so the O2 molecules are more spread out, meaning less is inhaled

Front 9

Understand the forces that promote lung collapse

Back 9

Lung collapse is caused by the equalization of the intrapleural pressure with the intrapulmonary pressure.

Front 10

Describe the role of surfectants and elastic fibers. Identify the cells that secrete surfectant

Back 10

Surfactant: secreted by type II alveolar cells which lower the surface tension of liquids moving around another liquid or solid substance

Front 11

Explain the reason for pulmonary issues in premature babies

Back 11

Fetal lungs do not produce aqeduate amounts of surfactant until the last two months of development so alveoli cannot inflate between breaths

Front 12

List several physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation

Back 12

Airway resistance: the major nonelastic resistance to gas flow is friction or drag that happens in the respiratory passageways

Surface tension: draws liquid molecules closer together and reduces their contact and resists any force that will increase the surface area of the liquid

Front 13

Define dead space

Back 13

volume of air in the conducting passages. (air that never reaches the alveoli)

Front 14

Understand external and internal respiration and the pressures and directions of movement involved

Back 14

External: processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body's interstitial fluid and the external environment.

Internal:absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide by cells.

Front 15

Describe the homeostatic imbalance: cystic fibrosis

Back 15

lung congestion and infection due to lack of absorption of nutrients by pancreas, hereditary disease, mucus falls into the lungs and traps bacteria and makes airways more narrow

Front 16

Describe the homeostatic imbalance: asthma

Back 16

acute respiratory disorder characterized by unusually sensitive, irritated conducting airways.

Front 17

Describe the homeostatic imbalance: pneumonia

Back 17

excess of fluid in the lungs, no diffusion can occur

Front 18

Describe the homeostatic imbalance: respiratory distress syndrome

Back 18

condition in which not enough surfactant is produced, person becomes exhausted with the effort of inflating and deflating the lungs.

Front 19

Describe the homeostatic imbalance: emphysema

Back 19

destruction of alveolar surfaces and inadequate surface area for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.

Front 20

Describe the homeostatic imbalance: lung collapse

Back 20

pressure outside of lungs always needs to be less than the inside, when pressure becomes greater the lungs will collapse

Front 21

Describe the respiratory elevator and link this to concerns of smoking

Back 21

cilia in the esophagus that moves mucus up and when you smoke it paralyzes the cilia and mucus will collect in the airways and lungs

Front 22

Describe compliance

Back 22

how easily the lungs expand and contract.; indication of expandibility.

Front 23

Identify the functional blood supply of the lungs

Back 23

Bronchial arteries, bronchial circulation supplies blood to the conduction zone

Front 24

Do some research into e-cigs. Describe any health concerns related to e-cigs.

Back 24

water in lungs, potential risks to health

Front 25

List the components of the lymph system and their functions

Back 25

Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, thymus

Drain fluid & protein, transport fats, make lymphocytes (immunity) of which B lymphocytes transform into plasma cells that make antibodies that fight infection.

Front 26

Describe the composition and organization of lymphatic vessels

Back 26

lymphatic vessels are similar to veins but have minivalves to make sure only one way movement

Lymphatic capillaries: very permeable

After the capillaries the lymph flows through thicker walled channels: collecting ducts, trunks, then ducts

Front 27

Identify the mechanisms relied on for lymph transport

Back 27

Lacks a true pump, relies on action of active skeletal muscles, pressure changes in the lungs during breathing and valves. Also smooth muscles in the walls of the lymph vessels contract moving lymph along

Front 28

Identify the regions of large collections of lymphatic vessels and organs

Back 28

Lymph nodes: mouth, inguinal, axillary, cervical

Organs: tonsils, thymus, spleen, peyer's patches, appendix

Front 29

Identify the location and function of lymph nodes

Back 29

Numerous locations along the lymphatics & they function to filter the lymph. This is a battleground for fighting infection and lymph nodes also make lymphocytes that fight infection & function in immunity.

Front 30

Identify the location and function of the tonsils

Back 30

form a ring of lymphoid tissue around the entrance of the pharynx and appear as swellings of mucosa.

Function: to gather and remove any pathogens that enter the pharynx

Front 31

Identify the location and function of the spleen

Back 31

The spleen(largest lymphoid organ) is inferior to the stomach and has red pulp where RBCs are stored and old ones are destroyed and white pulp where lymphocytes are made and microorganisms are "eaten" by phagocytes.

Function: store breakdown products of RBC's, blood platelets and monocytes for release into blood when needed, site of erythrocyte production in a fetus

Front 32

Identify the location and function of the peyer's patches

Back 32

large clusters of lymphoid follicles in the distal portion of the small intestine

Function: filter harmful "stuffs" from small intestine

Front 33

Identify the location and function of the cysterna chyli

Back 33

Anterior to the first two lumbar vertebrae.

It collects lymph from the two large lumbar trunks that drain the lower limbs and from the intestinal trunk that drains the digestive organs.

Front 34

Identify the location and function of the lacteals

Back 34

highly specialized lymphatic capillaries present in the fingerlike villi of the intestinal mucosa. It take up lipids.

Front 35

Identify the location and function of the thymus

Back 35

Thymus is above the heart in the mediastinum and makes T lymphocytes that function in immunity.

Front 36

Identify the location and function of the red bone marrow

Front 37

Identify the location and function of the appendix

Back 37

Attached to the cecum and destroys bacteria before it migrates into the large intestine.

Front 38

Identify the location and function of the right lymphatic duct

Back 38

Right Lymphatic duct collects lymph from right upper body and empties into the junction between right internal jugular and right subclavian veins.

Front 39

Identify the location and function of the thoracic duct

Back 39

larger than the right lymphatic duct and receives lymph from the rest of the body

Front 40

Identify the location and function of the right and left subclavian veins

Front 41

Describe the symptoms of appendicitis

Back 41

pain on the lower right side of the abdomen, pain by the navel that can shift to the lower right, pain worsens when you cough, walk, or make sudden movements. loss of appetite, nausea and vomitting, constipation or diarrhea, fever

Front 42

Research a tonsillectomy procedure and the reasons it is performed

Back 42

Tonsils become continuously inflammed and cause difficulty breathing or constant strep throat that cant be treated by antibiotics

Front 43

Research the effects of a tonsillectomy

Back 43

can treat swollen tonsils, sleep apnea, snoring, tonsil bleeding, trouble swallowing,

can cause vomitting, bad breath, fever, throat pain or sudden hemorrhage

Front 44

Research the effects of a splenectomy

Back 44

more likely to develop infections, severe pneumonia and meningitis, lung collapse, injury to pancreas/stomach/colon

Front 45

Research the effects of an appendectomy

Back 45

wound infection and rupture of appendix, injuries to the internal organs that aid in bowel movements

Front 46

Research the reason for lymph node biospies when someone has cancer

Back 46

Checks for cause of enlarged lymph node. Can be used to see if cancer is spreading or has spread

Front 47

Describe the function of the digestive system

Back 47

Digestion and absorption

Front 48

Differentiate between organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs

Back 48

Alimentary canal: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

Accessory: teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, pancreas

Front 49

Describe the structure and function the the mucosa

Back 49

Innermost layer that lines alimentary canal from mouth to anus. has three layers: lining epithelium(simple columnar epithelium), lamina propia(loose aereolar connective tissue and helps defend against bacteria), muscularis mucosae(smooth muscle layer that produces local movement)

Functions: secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones; absorb the end products of digestion into the blood; protect against infectious disease

Front 50

Describe the structure and function of the submucosa

Back 50

Aereolar connective tissue with rich supply of blood, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers

Function: supply surrounding GI tract wall. has abundant elastic tissue

Front 51

Describe the structure and function of the muscularis externa

Back 51

Inner circular layer and longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells, also has sphincters that act as valves to control food movement

Function: segmentation and peristalsis

Front 52

Describe the structure and function of the serosa

Back 52

also known as visceral peritoneum. formed of areolar connective tissue and mesothelium (simple squamous epithelial cells)

Function: anchors organs in place?

Front 53

Describe the structure and function of the lumen

Back 53

Space inside of a vessel or tube that blood, lymph, air can have a passageway through

Front 54

Differentiate between plicae circulares, villi, microvilli

Back 54

Plicae Circularies: valvular flaps in the small intestine that protrude into the small intestine lumen.

Villi: elongated projection to increase surface area

Microvilli: small projection that increase surface area

Front 55

List and define the major processes occurring during digestive system activity

Back 55

Ingestion - Putting food in mouth

Propulsion/Motility - move food via peristalsis

Mechanical breakdown/digestion - Physical process of chewing, mixing, churning, and segmentation

Chemical digestion - break down via secretion of enzymes, acids, and bile

Absorption - passage of digested end products from the lumen of GI tract through mucosal cells into the lymph/blood

Defecation/elimination - feces

Front 56

Describe the location and function of the peritoneum

Back 56

body wall of the abdominopelvic cavity

Function: supports the abdominal organs

Front 57

Differentiate between the visceral and parietal peritonea

Back 57

Visceral: covers organs

Parietal: lines the walls of the cavities

Front 58

Describe the location and function of the lesser omenta

Back 58

Runs from the liner to the lesser curvature of the stomach with it becomes continuous with the visceral peritoneum covering the stomach

Front 59

Describe the location and function of the greater omenta

Back 59

Drapes inferiorly from the greater curvature of the stomach to cover the coils of the small intestine. Runs dorsally and superiorly wrapping the spleen and the transverse portion of the large intestine. Has fatty deposits and large collections of lymph nodes

Stores fat and protects

Front 60

Define retroperitoneal

Back 60

Behind the retroperitoneum

Front 61

Name the retroperitoneal organs of the digestive system

Back 61

suprarenal

aorta

duodenum

pancreas

ureter

colon

kidneys

esophagus

rectum

Front 62

Identify the structural modifications of the wall of the stomach that enhance the digestive process

Back 62

Four tunics(layers). Usual circular and longitudinal of smooth muscle, but also an incomplete innermost layer that runs obliquely. allows stomach to mix, churn,, and move food along, but also break down

Front 63

Name the cell types responsible for secreting the various components of gastric juice and indicate the importance of each component in stomach activity

Back 63

Mucuos neck cells: scattered in the "neck" and more basal regions of the glands , produce a thin, soluble mucus

Parietal cells: found mainly on apical region of the glands scattered among the cheif cells. Secrete HCl and intrinsic factor. The stomach needs the acidity to break down food and for pepsin to work

Chief cells: basal regions of gastric glands. produces pepsinogen which will activate pepsin. also secrete lipase

Enteroendocrine cells: release chemical messengers for histamine, serotonin and somatostatin and gastrin

Front 64

Describe stomach structure and indicate changes in the basic alimentary canal structure that aid its digestive function

Front 65

Explain how gastric secretion and stomach mobility are regulated

Back 65

CCK secretin gastrin

nueral and hormonal

Front 66

Identify and describe structural modifications of the wall of the small intestine that enhance the digestive process

Back 66

Villi, plicae circulares, microvilli

Front 67

Describe the functions of intestinal hormones

Back 67

Gastrin: stimulates gastric acid secretions and proliferation of gastric epithelium

CCK: stimulates gall bladder to release bile and to relax the hepatopancreatic sphincter

Secretin: stimulates secretion of bicarbonate rich pancreatic juice

Front 68

Identify the lobules of the liver

Back 68

hexagonal structure of liver cells/hepatocytes which form a central vein that runs through the axis of the lobule

Front 69

Identify and know the function of the hepatocytes

Back 69

liver cells, process Bourne nutrients, store fat soluble proteins, detoxification, can secrete growth factor to regenerate

Front 70

Identify and know the function of the portal vein

Back 70

Carries venous blood with nutrients from digestive viscera

Front 71

Identify and know the function of the central vein

Front 72

Identify and know the function of the sinusoids

Back 72

duct/vessel through which blood from the portal vein and the hepatic artery enter and go to the central vein

Front 73

Identify and know the function of the macrophages

Back 73

make up parts of the sinusoid walls and remove debris like worn our blood cells and bacteria

Front 74

Identify and know the function of the interlobular vein

Front 75

Identify and know the function of the hepatic vein

Front 76

Refer back to the hepatic portal system and link to the flow of blood into and out of the lobules, along with the production and flow of bile to the duodenum

Front 77

State the composition and role of bile digestion

Back 77

Bile is composed of bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipids, lecythin

bile separates fats, vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Also serves as an excretory route of bilirubin

Front 78

Describe the role of the gallbladder

Back 78

store and concentrate bile

Front 79

State the role of pancreatic juices in digestion

Back 79

contains digestive enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.

Front 80

Describe how bile and pancreatic juice secretion into the small intestine are regulated

Back 80

1. Chyme entering duodenum causes release of CCK and secretin from duodenal enteroendocrine cells.

2. CCK and secretin enter the bloodstream.

3. CCK induces secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice. Secretin causes secretion of HCO3̄-rich pancreatic juice.

4. Bile salts and to a lesser extent, secretin transported via bloodstream stimulate liver to produce bile more rapidly.

5. CCK (via bloodstream) causes gallbladder to contract and hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax; bile enters duodenum.

6. During cephalic and gastric phases, vagal nerve stimulation causes weak contractions of gallbladder.

Front 81

Describe the interaction of the liver, pancreas, duodenum, jejunum, gallbladder, bile duct, pancreatic duct, hepatopancreatic sphincter

Back 81

once food is in duedenum then hormones are signaled to be released, hormones go to liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and sphincter

Bile duct:

Pancreatic duct: carries pancreatic juice from the pancreas

Hepatopancreatic sphincter is closed when no digestion is occuring

Front 82

List the major functions of the large intestine

Back 82

Absorbs water and eliminates feces

Front 83

List the enzymes involved in digestion, name the foodstuffs on which they act. Are they secreted in their active forms, if no, explain.

Back 83

Carbohydrate: salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, brush border enzymes in small intestine

Protein: Pepsin, pancreatic enzymes, brush border enzymes

Fat: Lingual lipase, gastric lipase, pancreatic lipase, emulsification

Nucleic Acid: pacreatic RNA and DNA, brush border enzymes

Front 84

List the end products of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid digestion

Back 84

Protein: amino acids

Fat: monoglycerides and fatty acids

Carbohydrate: Galactose, glucose, fructose

Nucleic Acid: Pentose sugars, N-containing bases, phosphate ions

Front 85

Describe the role if intestinal bacteria

Back 85

Recovers energy from otherwise indigestible food and synthesizing some vitamins.

Fermentation: gut bacteria ferment indigestible carbohydrates and mucin and produce fuel in short fatty acid chain form

Vitamin synthesis: B complex vitamins and some vitamin K

Front 86

Research the H. pylori ulcer connection

Back 86

Helicobacter pylori is an acid resistant corkscrew-shaped bacteria. Destroys the protective mucosal layer

Front 87

Describe the external gross anatomy of the kidney

Back 87

There is a hilium which is a little cleft on the portion of the kidney that faces inwards where the ureter, renal blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves all connect to the kidney.

Three layers surround the kidney: renal fascia an outer layer of dense connective tissue to anchor the kidney, perirenal fat capsule a fatty mass that cushions the kidney, fibrous capsule a transparent layer that prevents infections from spreading from around the kidney to the kidney

Front 88

Describe the internal gross anatomy of the kidney

Back 88

Most superficial region is the renal cortex. Next portion is the renal medulla which is subdivided into renal pyramids that are separated by renal columns. The points of the renal pyramids are the minor calyces. The minor calyces form together to form the major calyces that join into the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis connects to the ureter

Front 89

Describe the functions of the kidney

Back 89

Functions: Regulating water and ion concentrations, filtration of toxic materials from blood like urea, produce erythropoietin and renin

Front 90

Trace the blood supply through the kidney

Back 90

Renal artery to segmental artery to interlobar artery to arcuate artery to interlobular artery (cortical radiate artery) to afferent arteriole to golmerular capillaries to efferent arteriole to peritubular capillaries to venule to interlobular vein (cortical radiate vein) to arcuate vein to interlobar vein to renal vein

Front 91

Trace the path urine takes from filtrate to expulsion from the urethra

Back 91

Glomerular capillaries in the glomerular capsule to the proximal convuluted tubule to the descending loop of henle to theasending loop of henle to the distal convuluted tubule to the collecting duct to the papillary duct to renal papillae to minor calyx to major calyx to renal pelvis to ureter to urinary bladder to urethra

Front 92

Link the pathway of blood to the pathway of urine

Back 92

Renal artery to segmental artery to interlobar artery to arcuate artery to interlobular artery (cortical radiate artery) to afferent arteriole to glomerular capillaries to proximal convuluted tubule to descending loop of henle to ascending loop of henle to distal convuluted tubule to collecting duct to papillary duct to renal papillae to minor calyx to major calyx to renal pelvis to ureter to urinary bladder to urethra

Front 93

Describe the three components of urine formation

Back 93

Filtration(pushing out the stuff)

Re-absorption(want them back in the blood)

Secretion(from the blood back into the filtrate)

Front 94

Describe the anatomy of a nephron

Back 94

Renal corpuscle: Has a hollow glomerulus capsule(also called Bowman's capsule) that has a ball of capillaries inside called the glomerulus.

Renal tubule: the section of tubes beginning with the proximal convoluted tubule that drops into the descending loop of Henle then rises in the ascending loop of Henle and goes through the distal convoluted tubule before emptying into a collecting duct

Front 95

Describe the structure and function of the filtration membrane

Back 95

lies between the blood and the interior of the glomerular capsule

Has three layers: fenestrated endothelium(pores) that allows blood components to pass through but not blood; basement membrane composed of the fused basal laminae that blocks all but the smallest proteins and repels plasma proteins; foot processes of podocytes that blocks all macromolecules

Front 96

Describe the structure and function of afferent and efferent arterioles

Back 96

Afferent arterioles branch from the cortical radiate arteries which feeds the glomerulus and runs through the renal cortex.

Efferent arteriolese drain the glomerulus and feeds either the peritubular capillaries or vasa recta. Peritubular capillaries absorb the solutes and water from the tubules. Vasa Recta supplies oxygen and nutrients to the medulla.

Front 97

Describe the structure and function of the renal corpuscle

Back 97

has a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus that are surrounded by the glomerular capsule.

Front 98

Describe the structure and function of the glomerular capillaries

Back 98

Made up of endothelium that is fenestrated (meaning many pores) that allows solutes to pass through (but not proteins) that allow for the the formation of urine

Front 99

Describe the structure and function of PCT

Back 99

Made up of cuboidal epithelial cells with large mitochondria and their apical surfaces have dense microvilli

Function: responsible for reabsorption of water and other substances from tubular fluid ~60% of reabsorption happens here

Front 100

Describe the structure and function of the descending limb of LOH

Back 100

Made up of simple squamous epithelium

Filters out water

Front 101

Describe the structure and function of the ascending limb of LOH

Back 101

Made up of cuboidal epithelium and macula densa

Filters out ions like NaCl

Front 102

Describe the structure and function of the DCT

Back 102

Made up of cuboidal epithelium cells and lack microvilli

Hormones affect the filtrate here

Front 103

Describe the structure and function of the collecting duct

Back 103

Has two cell types, principal cells that have short microvilli and intercalated cells that are cuboidal with abundant microvilli.

Drains the urine from the renal pelvis of the nephrons into the ureter.

Front 104

Describe the forces(pressures) that promote or counteract glomerular filtration

Front 105

Differentiate between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons (structurally and functionally)

Back 105

Cortical nephrons account for 85% of the nephrons in the kidneys. Found majorly in the cortex.

Juxtamedullary nephrons are found on the cortex-medulla junction, help produce concentrated urine

Front 106

Describe the normal properties of urine and reasons why abnormal components might be present

Back 106

Normal: water accounts for 95% of urine volume, the other 5% has solutes. The largest component of urine by weight is urea which is from the breakdown of amino acids. There are also nitrogenous wastes like uric acid and creatinine.

Abnormal: Glucose present-diabetus mellitus; proteins present-physical exertion or pregnancy or renal disease or heart failure; Ketone bodies-formation of ketone bodies; hemoglobin-hemolytic anemia or severe burns; Bile pigments-liver disease or obstruction of bile ducts; erythrocytes-bleeding urinary tract; leukocytes-uti

Front 107

Describe the importance of tubular reabsorption and list several substances that are secreted including locations of reabsorption

Back 107

Without tubular reabsorption our urine would drain our plasma in urine in less than half an hour. Tubular reabsorption reclaims solutes and water and returns them into the blood

PCT: nutrients like glucose, amino acids, water, lipids

Nephron loop: water, salts, calcium and magnesium

DCT: Salt, calcium

Collecting duct: salts, water

Front 108

Describe the importance of tubular secretion and list several substances that are reabsorbed, including location of reabsorption

Back 108

Tubular secretion moves more selected substances like H+, K+, NH4+, creatinine, and certain organix acids and bases, from the peritubular capillaries into the filtrate

Important for disposing substances such as certain drugs and metabolites, eliminating undesirable substances that were reabsorbed, ridding body of excess K+, controlling blood pH.

Front 109

Explain formation of dilute versus concentrated urine. Include ADH and aldosterone when discussing concentrated urine formation

Back 109

ADH makes the cells more permeable to water(because it determines the number of aquaporins). More ADH means more water will be reabsorbed. When the body is overhydrated, the ADH decreases and water is expelled

Aldosterone tells the collecting ducts to retain Na+, which in turn will also retain water. Concentrated urine is when there is little water to dilute the urea.

Front 110

Describe the age-related aspects of the urinary system we discussed

Back 110

Urinary incontenence: inability to control urination from weakened pelvis muscles

urinary retention: urinary bladder is unable to expel the urine