Anatomy Chapter 22 Respiratory System

Front 1

Pulmonary Ventilation

Back 1

- Moving air into and out of the lungs - aka breathing

- During inspiration and expiration, so that gases there are continuously changed and refreshed

- Requires energy, ATP

Front 2

External Respiration

Back 2

- Gas exchange/ diffusion between the lungs and the blood

- Includes transport of oxygen to tissues and carbon dioxide to lungs

Front 3

Internal Respiration

Back 3

- Gas exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues

- Diffusion of oxygen to tissue cells, carbon dioxide to blood

Front 4

1. Pulmonary Ventilation - Breathing

2. External Respiration

3. Internal Respiration

Back 4

3 Processes of Respiration (TEST QUESTION)

and the 2 Processes the Respiratory SYSTEM is responsible for

Front 5

Respiratory Zone

Back 5

- Site of gas exchange (inside the lungs)

- Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

Front 6

Conducting Zone

Back 6

- Rigid (So it doesn't collapse- hyaline cartilage) passageways for air to reach the sites of gas exchange

- Cleanse, humidify and warm incoming air

- Upper respiratory structures: Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

- Lower respiratory structures: Larynx, Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

Front 7

Respiratory Muscles

Back 7

- Diaphragm and other muscles that promote ventilation

- Not considered part of the respiratory system, but the muscular system

Front 8

- Air passageway

- Switching mechanism: to route air and food into proper channels

- Voice Productions

ASV

Back 8

3 Functions of the Larynx

- Connects pharynx to trachea; framework of cartilage and dense connective tissue; opening is closed by epiglottis (elastic cartilage) or vocal folds (true vocal cords)

- Shielded by hyaline cartilage (Thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, cuneiform, corniculate)

Front 9

True Vocal Cords

Back 9

- Composed of elastic fibers that form mucosal folds, lack blood vessels

- Vibrate as air rushes up from the lungs

- Inferior to vestibular folds

- Anything below consists of pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Front 10

Glottis

Back 10

- Medial opening between the true vocal cords

- Vestibular folds help close it when swallowing

Front 11

Vocal Ligaments

Back 11

- Vibrate to produce sound as air passes by from lungs

- Form the core of mucosal folds called vocal cords

- Attach the arytenoid and thyroid cartilages

Front 12

Trachea

Mucosa

Submucosa

Adventitia

Back 12

- Flexible tube from the larynx into the mediastinum

- What are the 3 layers?

Front 13

Mucosa

Back 13

- Layer of trachea that is made up of goblet cells and ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

- Rests on a fairly thick lamina propria that has a rich supply of elastic fibers

Front 14

Submucosa

Back 14

- Layer of trachea that consists of connective tissue deep to the mucosa

- Contains seromucous gland

- Supported by 20 C shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

Front 15

Adventitia

Back 15

- Outermost connective tissue layer of trachea that encases the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

Front 16

Primary (CPC - Hyaline)

Lobar (Secondary - One for each lobe) (CPC - Hyaline)

Segmental (Tertiary - One for each segment) (CPC - Hyaline)

Terminal bronchioles (Columnar - Cuboidal)

Respiratory bronchioles (Cuboidal)

Alveolar Ducts (Cuboidal)

Back 16

6 Level Pathway of Bronchial Tree and name the epithelium and cartilage

Front 17

Right - Superior, middle, inferior

Left - Superior, Inferior

Bronchopulmonary

Back 17

Name the right and left lobes of the lungs.

What are the segments of the lungs called?

Front 18

Cardiac Notch

Back 18

- In the anterior border of the superior lobe of the left lung that accommodates the pericardium - the membrane enclosing the heart

Front 19

Pleural Cavity

Back 19

- Lined with thin serous pleural membrane, open area for the lungs

- Parietal and Visceral membranes are here

Front 20

Pleural Fluid

Back 20

- If cavity is penetrated, this or air deflates lung

- This phenomenon is called "Pneumothorax"

Front 21

Pneumothorax

Back 21

- A collapsed lung, occurs when air leaks into the space between your lung and chest wall - the pleural cavity

Front 22

Alveoli

Back 22

- Approximately 300 million in respiratory zone of lungs

- Account for most of the volume of the lungs

- Provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange (75 sq m)

- Contain open pores that connect adjacent ones to equalize air pressure through out lungs

- Contain macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces sterile

Front 23

- Alveolar Wall (Type I Alveolar Cells)

- Fused Basement Membrane

- Capillary Wall

Back 23

Describe the 3 Part Composition of the Respiratory Membrane, a thin blood air barrier that has blood flowing on one side and gas on the other.

Front 24

Alveolar Walls

Back 24

- Consist of endothelium of Type I Alveolar Cells

- Permit gas exchange by simple diffusion

Front 25

Surfactant

Back 25

- Secretion of Type II Alveolar cells that is a detergent-like complex that reduces surface tension and helps keep the alveoli from collapsing

- Can be from a fetus

Front 26

Respiratory Pressure

Back 26

- Always described relative to atmospheric pressure

Front 27

760 mmHg sea level

Back 27

Atmospheric Pressure (Patm) Value

Front 28

Atmospheric Pressure (P atm)

Back 28

- Pressure exerted by air surrounding body

- When Respiratory Pressure is negative, it means it is less than this

- When Respiratory Pressure is positive, it means it is greater than this

Front 29

Less

Greater

Back 29

Negative Respiratory Pressure means (Greater/Less) than Atmospheric Pressure?

Positive Respiratory Pressure means (Greater/Less) than Atmospheric Pressure?

Front 30

1. Diaphragm

2. External Intercostal Muscles

3. Intrapulmonary Volume

4. Intrapulmonary Pressure

5 . Negative Pressure Breathing

Back 30

______1_____ and _____2______ contract and the rib cage rises.

The lungs are stretched and the _____3______ increases.

______4______ drops below atmospheric pressure.

Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient, until ____4_____ = atmospheric pressure

This is called _____5______.

Front 31

Inspiratory Muscles

Rib Cage - Contraction moves it superiorly

Back 31

External Intercostal Muscles aka?

What do they control?

Front 32

Negative Pressure Breathing/Inspiration

Expiration

Back 32

1. Inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends, rib cage rises), external intercostals contract

2. Thoracic cavity volume increases

3. Lungs stretches, intrapulmonary volume increases

4. Intrapulmonary pressure drops to -1 mm Hg, below atmospheric pressure

5. Air (gases) flows into lungs down the pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0 (equal to Patm)

완전 반대는?

Front 33

Tidal Volume

Back 33

Volume (mL) of air moved in one breath

- 500 mL at rest

- 2000-3000 mL after exercise

Front 34

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Back 34

- Air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume

- 2100-3200mL

Front 35

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Back 35

- Air that can be expired forcibly after a normal tidal volume inspiration

- 1000-1200mL

Front 36

Residual Volume (RV)

Back 36

- Air left in the lungs after strenuous expiration which helps to keep the alveoli open and prevent lung collapse

- 1000-1200mL

Front 37

Pulmonary Capacities

Back 37

- Sums of Pulmonary Volumes

Front 38

Tidal Volume + IRV + ERV

Back 38

Vital Capacity Equation (VC)

Front 39

Tidal Volume + IRV + ERV + Residual Volume

Back 39

Total Lung Capacity Equation (TLC)

Front 40

Skeletal Muscle

Dome-shaped, Not attached to bone

Phrenic Nerve

Back 40

What type of muscle is the diaphragm?

What is its shape and why is it unique?

What nerve innervates it?

Front 41

Smooth Muscle

Back 41

Bronchioles have what type of muscle?

Front 42

Hiccups

Back 42

- Spasms in the diaphragm stimulated from the phrenic nerve, "muscle twitch"

Front 43

To get oxygen to do cellular respiration

Back 43

Why do we breathe?

Front 44

Cellular Respiration

Back 44

- Catabolism

- Breakdown of glucose to release energy

Front 45

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Back 45

- Type of epithelium that lines trachea and bronchial tubes, including bronchioles

Front 46

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Back 46

- Type of epithelium that lines alveolar ducts, air sacs and alveoli (Singular: alveolus)

Front 47

Air Ducts are open Alveoli

Back 47

Difference between air ducts and alveoli

Front 48

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Back 48

- Vocal Ligaments made up of what type of connective tissue?

Front 49

Connective Tissue

Back 49

- Type of Tissue underneath epithelium

Front 50

5 Lobar (Secondary) Bronchi

(1 for each lobe)

Back 50

How many bronchi in the lungs?

Front 51

Intrapulmonary Pressure

Back 51

- Pressure in the alveoli

- Rises and falls with the phases of breathing, but always equalizes with the atmospheric pressure eventually

- Should never be equal or less to intrapleural pressure, or will collapse

Front 52

Intrapleural pressure

Back 52

- Pressure in the pleural cavity

- Also fluctuates with breathing phases, but always about 4 mmHg less than intrapulmonary pressure (P pul)

- Opposing Forces: Both lungs and alveoli try to be at smallest possible size (surface tension) but chest wall pushes thorax outward to enlarge lungs

Front 53

Transpulmonary Pressure

Back 53

- Difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures to keep lungs open and from collapsing

- Positive relationship to size of lungs

Front 54

- Mostly bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells

- Dissolved in plasma (1.5%)

Back 54

Molecular Oxygen is carried in the blood 2 ways

Front 55

4

Back 55

Each hemoglobin can bind up to ___ oxygen atoms in a rapid and reversible process

Front 56

Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

Reduced Hemoglobin (HHb)

Back 56

Hemoglobin-oxygen combination is called

Hemoglobin that has released oxygen is called

Front 57

75%

50%

Back 57

Percentage of O2 saturated in venous blood from resting tissue?

Exercise can cause an additional ___ unloading.

Front 58

Temperature

pH or H+ (Acidity)

Partial Pressure of CO2

Back 58

3 Factors that modify the structure of hemoglobin and alter its affinity for oxygen

Front 59

Decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen which enhances oxygen unloading from the blood

Bohr-Effect: Oxygen unloading is enhanced where it is needed

Back 59

Increase of factors (Temperature, H+ ions, partial pressure of CO2) does what to hemoglobin's affinity?

When it decreases?

Front 60

- Dissolved in Plasma 7-10%

- Hemoglobin 20%

- Bicarbonate ions in plasma (HCO3-) 70%

Back 60

3 Forms CO2 is transported in blood and their percentages?

Front 61

Neural Controls

Chemical Controls

Back 61

- 2 Controls for Regulation of Ventilation Rate

Front 62

Hypothalamus Controls

Back 62

- Modify Rate and Depth of respiration

- Ex: Breath holding (Anger); Rise in body temperature, increases respiratory rate

Front 63

Cerebral Cortex Controls

Back 63

- Direct signals from here that bypass medullary controls

- Ex: Voluntary breath holding; taking a deep breath

Front 64

Chemoreceptors

Back 64

- Monitor changing PCO2 levels; located in brain stem (medulla)

- Raising P CO2 levels result in increased depth and rate of breathing

Front 65

Hypoventilation

Back 65

- Slow and shallow breathing due to abnormally low P CO2 levels

Front 66

Apnea (Breathing Cessation)

Back 66

- When breathing stops, and may occur until P CO2 levels rise, from depressed respiration from hypocapnia

Front 67

Hyperventilation

Back 67

- Increased depth and rate of breathing that quickly flushed CO2 from the blood

- Increased ventilation in response to falling pH is mainly mediated by chemoreceptors

- Rise in CO2 acts as the original stimulus

Front 68

Hydrogen Ion Concentration in the Brain

Back 68

Control of breathing at rest is regulated by?

Front 69

Acidosis

Back 69

- Increased hydrogen ion concentration in the blood or other body tissue

- May indicate carbon dioxide retention (Carbonic Acid)

- Accumulation of lactic acid

- Excess fatty acids in patients with diabetes mellitus

- Respiratory system controls will attempt to raise the pH by increasing respiratory rate and depth

Front 70

Alkalosis

Back 70

- From decreased levels of carbon dioxide, when excessively absent from the body fluids or tissues, may cause weakness or cramps

Front 71

Nose

Back 71

- Provides airway for respiration

- Moistens and warms entering air

- Filters and cleans inspired air

- Serves as resonating chamber for speech

- Houses the olfactory receptors

Front 72

Ethmoid, Sphenoid

Palatine, Maxillary

Back 72

The roof of the nasal cavity is formed by which two skull bones? (2)

The palate 'floor' is supported by which skull bones? (2)

Front 73

Pharynx

Back 73

- Passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx and oral cavity to esophagus

- Houses tonsils (lymphoid tissue masses)

- Facilitates exposure of immune system to inhaled antigens

Front 74

Nasopharynx

Back 74

- Serves ONLY as air passageway

- Soft palate and uvula move to close off this region when swallowing

- Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium propels mucus

- Pharyngeal tonsil traps and destroys inhaled pathogens

- Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes open into here

Front 75

Oropharynx

Back 75

- Stratified squamous epithelium accommodates increased friction and chemical trauma

- Palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils

Front 76

Laryngopharynx

Back 76

- Stratified squamous epithelium

- Serves as a passageway for food and air

Front 77

Gets higher

Greater

Back 77

To make voice pitch higher, what happens to the tension of vocal folds?

To be louder, depends on greater/lower force which the airstream rushes across the vocal folds

Front 78

Lobules

Back 78

- Smallest subdivisions of the lungs visible with the naked eye, appearing as hexagons ranging from the size of a pencil eraser to a penny

- Served by large bronchiole and its branches

- In city dweller and smokers, connective tissue that separates these individual parts are blackened with carbon

Front 79

Stroma

Back 79

The term referring to the lung tissue "mattress" or "bed" and is mostly elastic connective tissue

Front 80

Bronchial Arteries

Back 80

- Provide oxygenated systemic blood to lung tissue

- Arise from the aorta, enter the lungs at the hilum and then run along branchhing bronchi

Front 81

Angiotensin converting enzyme

Back 81

- Enzymes that activate an important blood pressure hormone called _____ _____ ______and enzymes that inactivate certain prostaglandins are ideally located in the lung capillary endothelium since the entire body's blood passes through here each minute

Front 82

P1V1 = P2V2

@ Constant Temperature

- Action of diaphragm and intercostal muscles affect breathing by changing intrapulmonary pressure

Back 82

Give the equation for Boyle's Law and how it relates to inspiration and expiration

Front 83

Lung elasticity

Back 83

Quiet expiration is a passive process that depends more on ______ ______ than on muscle contraction

Front 84

- Cough

- Sneeze

- Cry

- Laugh

- Hiccup

- Yawn

Back 84

6 Examples of Nonrespiratory Air movements

Front 85

Medium Sized Bronchi

Terminal Bronchioles

Back 85

Greatest resistance to gas flow occurs in what part of the conducting zone?

Gas flow then stops at the ______ ________ since diffusion takes over as the main force so resistance is no longer an issue.

Front 86

Bohr Effect

Haldane Effect

Back 86

- As CO2 enters the system bloodstream, it causes more oxygen to dissociate from Hb

This describes what effect?

- The dissociation of O2 allows more CO2 to combine with Hb

This describes what effect?

Front 87

Excess hydrogen ions bind with bicarbonate ions to form carbonic acid

Carbonid Acid disassociates to release hydrogen ions

Back 87

When blood becomes acidic, describe what happens to hydrogen ions

When blood becomes basic, describe what happens to the hydrogen ions

Front 88

Medulla Oblongata

Humoral CO2 Levels

Central Chemoreceptors

Back 88

Which brain stem respiratory area is thought to generate the respiratory rhythm?

Which chemical factor in blood provides the most powerful stimulus to breathe?

Which chemoreceptors are most important for this response?

Front 89

Emphysema

Back 89

- Breakdown of elastin in connective tissue of lungs leads to destruction of alveolar walls and loss of lung elasticity

- Associated with "barrel chestedness" and "pink puffers"

Front 90

Chronic Bronchitis

Back 90

- Continual bronchial irritation and inflammation leading to excess mucus production and chronic productive cough

- Associated with "blue bloaters" that become sufficiently hypoxic that they are obviously cyanotic

Front 91

Asthma

Back 91

- Characterized by episodes of coughing, dyspnea, wheezing and chest tightness

- Obstructive but reversible disorder

Front 92

Tuberculosis

Back 92

- Caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium, spread by coughing

- Active strains are contained from a massive inflammatory and immune response in fibrous nodules in the lungs

- Fever, night sweats, weight loss, racking cough something with blood

Front 93

Henry's Law

Back 93

- States that when a gas is in contact with a liquid, the gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure

- Accordingly, the greater the concentration of a particular gas in the gas phase, the more and the faster that gas will go into solution in the liquid

Front 94

Adenocarcinoma

Back 94

- 40% of cases, which originates in peripheral lung areas as solitary nodules that develop from bronchial glands and alveolar cells

- Ordinary defenses are overwhelmed and eventually stop functioning

Front 95

Squamous cell carcinoma

Back 95

- 25-30% of cases, which arises in the epithelium of the bronchi or their larger subdivisions and tends to form masses that may cavitate (hollow out) and bleed

- Ordinary defenses are overwhelmed and eventually stop functioning

Front 96

Small cell carcinoma

Back 96

- 20% of cases where round lymphocyte-sized cells that originate in the main bronchi and grow aggressively in small grapelike clusters within the mediastinum

- Metastasis from the mediastinum is especially rapid

- Some cause additional problems because they produce certain hormone such as antidiuretic hormone

Front 97

Hyperapnea

Back 97

- As exercise begins, there is an abrupt increase in ventilation called __________ followed by a more gradual increase. When exercise stops, there is an abrupt decrease in ventilation followed by a gradual decline to baseline values.