Anatomy And Physiology Chapter 1

Front 1

1.1 - Introduction

Back 1

1. Early interest in human body probably developed as people became concerned about injuries and illnesses.
2. Primitive doctors began to learn how certain herbs and potions affected body functions.
3. The belief that humans could understand forces that caused natural events led to the development of modern science.
4. A set of terms originating from Greek and Latin words is the basis for the language of anatomy and physiology.

Front 2

1.2 - Anatomy and Physiology

Back 2

1. Anatomy describes the form and organization of body parts.
2. Physiology considers the functions of anatomical parts.
3. The function of a body part depends on the way it is constructed.

Front 3

1.3 - Levels of organization

Back 3

The body is composed of parts with different levels of complexity.
1. Matter is composed of atoms.
2. Atoms join to form molecules.
3. Organelles are built of groups of large molecules (macromolecules).
4. Cells, which contain organelles, are the basic units of structure and function that form the body.
5. Cells are organized into tissues.
6. Tissues are organized into organs.
7. Organs that function closely together compose organ systems.
8. Organ systems constitute the organism.
9. Beginning at the atomic level, these levels of organization differ in complexity from one level to the next.

Front 4

1.4 - Characteristics of Life

Back 4

These characteristics include:
1. Movement - changing body position or moving internal parts.
2. Responsiveness - sensing and reacting to internal or external changes.
3. Growth - increasing size without changing shape.
4. Reproduction - producing offspring.
5. Respiration - obtaining oxygen, using oxygen to release energy from foods, and removing gaseous wastes.
6. Digestion - breaking down food substances into component nutrients that the intestine can absorb.
7. Absorption - moving substances through membranes and into body fluids.
8. Circulation - moving substances through the body in body fluids.
9. Assimilation - changing substances into chemically different forms.
10. Excretion - removing body wastes.

Acquisition and use of energy constitute metabolism.

Front 5

1.5 - Maintenance of Life

Back 5

The structures and functions of body parts maintain the life of the organism.
1. Requirements of organisms
a. Water is used in many metabolic processes, provides the environment for metabolic reactions, and transports substances.
b. Food supplies energy, raw materials for building new living matter, and chemicals necessary in vital reactions.
c. Oxygen releases energy from food materials. this energy drives metabolic reactions.
d. Heat is a product of metabolic reactions and helps govern the rates of these reactions.
e. Pressure is an application of force to something. in humans, atmospheric and hydrostatic pressure help breathing and blood movements, respectively.
2. Homeostasis
a. If an organism is to survive, the conditions within its body fluids must remain relatively stable.
b. Maintenance of a stable internal environment is called homeostasis.
c. Homeostatic mechanisms help regulate body temperature and BP.
d. Homeostatic mechanisms act through negative feedback.

Front 6

Axial portion

Back 6

Includes head, neck, and trunk.
Within the axial portion are the cranial cavity, which houses the brain; the vertebral canal, which contains the spinal cord within the sections of the backbone; the thoracic cavity; and the abdominopelvic cavity.

Front 7

Appendicular portion

Back 7

Includes the upper and lower limbs.

Front 8

Diaphragm

Back 8

A broad, thin skeletal muscle separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.

Front 9

Mediastinum

Back 9

Separates the thoracic cavity into two compartments, which contain the right and left lungs. Also, the heart, esophagus, trachea, and thymus are located here.

Front 10

Abdominal cavity

Back 10

The viscera within this cavity include the stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, and most of the small and large intestines.

Front 11

Pelvic cavity

Back 11

Portion of the abdominopelvic cavity enclosed by the hip bones. Contains the terminal portion of the large intestine, the urinary bladder, and the internal reproductive organs.

Front 12

Smaller cavities within the head:

Back 12

1. Oral cavity - containing the teeth and tongue.
2. Nasal cavity - located within the nose and divided into right and left portions by a nasal septum.
3. Orbital Cavities - Containing the eyes and associated skeletal muscles and nerves.
4. Middle ear cavities - containing the middle ear bones.

Front 13

Integumentary system

Back 13

Organs include the skin and various accessory organs, such as the hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. They protect underlying tissues, help regulate body temperature, house a variety of sensory receptors, and synthesize certain products.

Front 14

Skeletal system

Back 14

Consists of bones, as well as ligaments and cartilages that bind bones together. These parts provide frameworks and protective shields for softer tissues, are attachments for muscles, and act with muscles when body parts move. Tissues within bones also produce blood cells and store inorganic salts.

Front 15

The Muscular System

Back 15

By contracting and pulling their ends closer together, muscles provide forces that move body parts. They also maintain posture and are the main source of body heat.

Front 16

The nervous system

Back 16

Consists of the brain, the spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. The cells communicate with each other and with other muscles and glands using chemical signals called neurotransmitters.

Front 17

The Endocrine System

Back 17

Includes all the glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones. The hormones move away from the glands in body fluids, such as blood or tissue fluid. A particular hormone affects only a particular group of cells, called its target cells. A hormone alters the metabolism of its target cells. Compared to nerve impulses, hormonal effects occur over a relatively longer time period. Organs of this system includes the hypothalamus of the brain; the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands; and the pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and thymus.

Front 18

The Cardiovascular system

Back 18

Includes the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, and blood. The heart is a muscular pump that helps force blood through the blood vessels. Blood transports gases, nutrients, hormones, and wastes. It carries oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive organs to all body cells, where these biochemicals are used in metabolic processes. Blood also transports hormones and carries wastes from body cells to the excretory organs, where the wastes are removed form the bloody and released to the outside.

Front 19

The lymphatic system

Back 19

Is closely related to the cardiovascular system. It is composed of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and a fluid called lymph. This system transports some of the tissue fluid back to the bloodstream and carries certain fatty substances away from the digestive organs and into the bloodstream. Cells of this system are called lymphocytes, and they defend the body against infections by removing disease-causing microorganisms and viruses form tissue fluid.

Front 20

The Digestive System

Back 20

Receive foods from the outside. Then they break down food molecules into simpler forms that can pass through cell membranes and be absorbed. Materials that are not absorbed are transported back to the outside and eliminated. Certain digestive organs also produce hormones and thus function as parts of the endocrine system. Includes the mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine.

Front 21

The respiratory system

Back 21

Moves air in and out and exchanges gases between the blood and the air. More specifically, oxygen passes from the air within the lungs into the blood, and carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enters the air. The nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs are parts of this system.

Front 22

The Urinary System

Back 22

Consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys remove wastes from blood and help maintain the body's water and salt concentrations. The product of these activities is urine.

Front 23

Reproductive system

Back 23

Produces whole new organisms like itself.

The male reproductive system includes the scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, penis, and urethra. These parts produce and maintain sperm cells.

The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and vulva. The organs produce and maintain the female sex cells, transport the female sex cells within the female reproductive system, and can receive the male sex cells for the possibility of fertilizing an egg.

Front 24

Anatomical Position

Back 24

This means that the body is standing erect, face forward, with the upper limbs at the sides and the palms forward.

Front 25

Superior

Back 25

Means that a body part is above another part.

Front 26

Inferior

Back 26

Means that a body part is below another body part.

Front 27

Anterior (ventral)

Back 27

Means toward the front

Front 28

Posterior (dorsal)

Back 28

Means toward the back

Front 29

Medial

Back 29

Refers to an imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left halves. A body part is medial if it is closer to the midline than another part. (The nose is medial to the eyes).

Front 30

Lateral

Back 30

Means toward the side, away from the imaginary midline. (The ears are lateral to the eyes.)

Front 31

Bilateral

Back 31

Refers to paired structures, one of which is on each side.

Front 32

Ipsilateral

Back 32

Refers to structures on the same side.

Front 33

Contralateral

Back 33

Refers to structures on the opposite side.

Front 34

Proximal

Back 34

Describes a body part that is closer to a point of attachment to the the trunk than another body part. (The elbow is proximal to the wrist.)

Front 35

Distal

Back 35

Is the opposite of proximal. It means that a particular body part is father from a point of attachment to the trunk than another body part is.

Front 36

Superficial

Back 36

Means situated near the surface.

Front 37

Deep

Back 37

Describes parts that are more internal than superficial parts.

Front 38

Sagittal

Back 38

Refers to a lengthwise plane that divides the body into right and left portions. If a sagittal plane passes along the midline and thus divides the body into equal parts, it is called median. A sagittal section lateral to midline is called parasaggital.

Front 39

Transverse

Back 39

Refers to a plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Front 40

Frontal

Back 40

Refers to a plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

Front 41

Epigastric region

Back 41

Upper middle portion

Front 42

Right and Left hypochondriac regions

Back 42

Lie on each side of the epigastric region

Front 43

Umbilical region

Back 43

Middle portion

Front 44

Right and Left lumbar regions

Back 44

Lie on each side of the umbilical region

Front 45

Hypogastric region

Back 45

Lower middle portion

Front 46

Right and Left iliac (inguinal) regions

Back 46

Lie on each side of the hypogastric region.

Front 47

Abdominal

Back 47

The region between the thorax and pelvis

Front 48

Acromial

Back 48

The point of the shoulder

Front 49

Antebrachial

Back 49

The forearm

Front 50

Antecubital

Back 50

The space in front of the elbow

Front 51

Axillary

Back 51

The armpit

Front 52

Brachial

Back 52

The arm

Front 53

Buccal

Back 53

The cheek

Front 54

Carpal

Back 54

The wrist

Front 55

Celiac

Back 55

The abdomen

Front 56

Cephalic

Back 56

The head

Front 57

Cervical

Back 57

The neck

Front 58

Costal

Back 58

The ribs

Front 59

Coxal

Back 59

The hip

Front 60

Crural

Back 60

The leg

Front 61

Cubital

Back 61

The elbow

Front 62

Digital

Back 62

The finger or toe

Front 63

Dorsal

Back 63

The back

Front 64

Femoral

Back 64

The thigh

Front 65

Frontal

Back 65

The forehead

Front 66

Genital

Back 66

The reproductive organs

Front 67

Gluteal

Back 67

The buttocks

Front 68

Inguinal

Back 68

The groin - the depressed area of the abdominal wall near the thigh.

Front 69

Lumbar

Back 69

The loin - the region of the lower back between the ribs and the pelvis.

Front 70

Mammary

Back 70

The breast

Front 71

Mental

Back 71

The chin

Front 72

Nasal

Back 72

The nose

Front 73

Occipital

Back 73

The lower posterior region of the head

Front 74

Oral

Back 74

The mouth

Front 75

Orbital

Back 75

The bony socket of the eye.

Front 76

Palmar

Back 76

The palm of the hand.

Front 77

Patellar

Back 77

The front of the knee

Front 78

Pectoral

Back 78

The chest

Front 79

Pedal

Back 79

The foot

Front 80

Pelvic

Back 80

The pelvis

Front 81

Perineal

Back 81

The perineum - the region between the anus and the external reproductive organs.

Front 82

Plantar

Back 82

The sole of the foot

Front 83

Popliteal

Back 83

The area behind the knee

Front 84

Sacral

Back 84

The posterior region between the hip bones

Front 85

Sternal

Back 85

The middle of the thorax, anteriorly.

Front 86

Sural

Back 86

The calf of the leg

Front 87

Tarsal

Back 87

The instep of the foot

Front 88

Umbilical

Back 88

The navel

Front 89

Vertebral

Back 89

The spinal column

Front 90

Cardiology

Back 90

Branch of medical science dealing with the heart and heart diseases.

Front 91

Cytology

Back 91

Study of the structure, function, and abnormalities of cells. Cytology and histology are subdivisions of microscopic anatomy.

Front 92

Dermatology

Back 92

Study of the skin and its diseases.

Front 93

Endocrinology

Back 93

Study of hormones, hormone-secreting glands, and their disease.

Front 94

Epidemiology

Back 94

Study of the factors determining the distribution and frequency of health-related conditions in a defined human population.

Front 95

Gastroenterology

Back 95

Study of the stomach and intestines and their diseases.

Front 96

Geriatrics

Back 96

Branch of medicine dealing with older individuals and their medical problems.

Front 97

Gerontology

Back 97

Study of the aging process.

Front 98

Geriatrics

Back 98

Branch of medicine dealing with older individuals and their medical problems.

Front 99

Gynecology

Back 99

Study of the female reproductive system and its diseases.

Front 100

Hematology

Back 100

Study of the blood and blood diseases.

Front 101

Histology

Back 101

Study of the structure and function of tissues. Histology and cytology are subdivisions of microscopic anatomy.

Front 102

Immunology

Back 102

Study of the bod's resistance to infections disease.

Front 103

Neonatology

Back 103

Study of newborns and the treatment

Front 104

Nephrology

Back 104

Study of the structure, function, and diseases of the kidneys.

Front 105

Neurology

Back 105

Study of the nervous system and its disorders.

Front 106

Obstetrics

Back 106

Branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy and childbirth.

Front 107

Oncology

Back 107

Study of cancers.

Front 108

Ophthalmology

Back 108

Study of the eye and eye disease.

Front 109

Orthopedics

Back 109

Branch of medicine dealing with the muscular and skeletal systems and their problems.

Front 110

Otolaryngology

Back 110

Study of the ear, throat, and larynx, and their diseases.

Front 111

Pathology

Back 111

Study of structural and functional changes that disease causes.

Front 112

Pediatrics

Back 112

Branch of medicine dealing with children and their diseases.

Front 113

Pharmacology

Back 113

Study of drugs and their uses in the treatment of disease.

Front 114

Podiatry

Back 114

Study of the care and treatment of feet.

Front 115

Psychiatry

Back 115

Branch of medicine dealing with the mind and it's disorders.

Front 116

Radiology

Back 116

Study of X-rays and radioactive substances and their uses in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

Front 117

Toxicology

Back 117

Study of poisonous substances and their effects upon body parts.

Front 118

Urology

Back 118

Branch of medicine dealing with the urinary system, apart from the kidneys and the male reproductive system, and their diseases.