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112 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Joints (articulations)
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Weakest parts of skeleton
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Articulation
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Site where two or more bones meet
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Functions of joints
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Give the skeleton mobility
Hold the skeleton together |
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Classifications of joints
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Structural focus: The material binding bones together
Whether or not a joint cavity is present |
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Structural Classifications
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Fibrous
Cartilaginous Synovial |
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Functional classification is based on the amount of:
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movement allowed by the joint
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Functional classes of joints
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synathroses-immovable
amphiarthroses-slightly moveable diarthroses-freely moveable |
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Fibrous structural joints
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bones are joined by fibrous tissues
no joint cavity most are immovable three types: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses |
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Fibrous structural joints: Sutures
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Occur between bones of skull
Comprised of interlocking junctions completely filled with connective tissue fibers Bind bones tightly together, but allow for growth during youth In middle ae, skull bones fuse and are called synostoses |
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Fibrous structural joints: syndesmoses
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Bones are connected by a fibrous tissue ligament
Movement varies from immovable to slightly variable Examples include the connection between the tibia and fibula, and the radius and ulna |
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Fibrous structural joints: gomphoses
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The peg in socket fibrous joint between a tooth and its alveolar socket
The fibrous connection is the peridontal ligament |
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Cartilaginous Joints
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Articulating bones are united by cartilage
Lack a joint cavity Two Types: Sychondroses and Symphses |
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Cartilaginous joints: Synchondroses
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A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones
All are synarthrotic Examples: epiphyseal plates of children, joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and the sternum |
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Cartilaginous joints: symphyses
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hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of the bone and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage
Amphiarthrotic joints designed for strength and flexibility Examples include intervertebral joints and the pubic symphysis of the pelvis |
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Synovial Joints
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Joints where articulating bones are seperated by a fluid containing joint cavity
All are freely moveable diarthroses Ex. All limb joints, most joints of the body |
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Synovial Joints: General Structure
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Have all the following:
Articular Cartilage Joing (synovial) cavity Articular Capsule Synovial Fluid Reinforcing ligaments |
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Synovial Joints: Friction Reducing structures
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Bursae
Common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together. Tendon Sheath |
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Bursae
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Flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and containing synovial fluid
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Tendon Sheath
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Elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon
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What classifies Synovial Joints ability to move?
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Articular surfaces-shape determines what movements are possible
Ligaments-unite bones and prevent excessive or undesirable motion |
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Synovial Joints: Muscle tone is accomplished by:
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Muscle tendons across joints acting as stabilizing factors
Tendons that are kept tight at all times by muscle tone |
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Synovial Joints: Movement
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Origin-attachment to the immovable bone
Insertion-attachment to the moveable bone Described as movement along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes |
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Gliding movements
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One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface
Examples: Intercarpal and intertarsal joints, and between the flat articular processes of the vertebrae |
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Rotation
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The turning of a bone around its own long axis
Ex. Between the first two vertebrae, hip and shoulder joints |
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Types of Synovial Joints: Hinge Joints
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Cylindrical projections of one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface on another
Motion is along a sngle plane Uniaxial joints permit flexion and extension only Ex. Elbow and interphalangeal joints |
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Plane Joint
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Articular surfaces are essentially flat
Allow only slipping or guiding movements Only examples of nonaxial joints |
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Pivot Joints
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Rounded end of one bone protrudes into a "sleeve" or ring, composed of bone (and possibly ligaments) of another
Only uniaxial movement allowed Examples: Joint between the axis and the dens, and the proximal radioulnar joint |
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Condyloid or Ellipsoidal Joints
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Oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another
Both articular surfaces are oval Biaxial joints permit all angular motions Ex: radiocarpal (wrist) joints, and metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints |
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Saddle Joints
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Similar to condyloid joints but allow greater movement
Each articular surface has both a concave and a convex surface Ex. Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb |
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Ball and Socket Joints
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A spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with a cuplike socket of another multiaxial joints permit the most freely moving synovial joints
Ex. shoulder and hip joints |
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Synovial Joints: Knee
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Largest and most complex joint of the body
Allows flexion, extension, and some rotation Three joints in one surrounded by a single joint cavity (femoropatellar joint, lateral and medial tibiofermoral joints) |
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Synovial Joints: Shoulder (glenohumeral)
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Ball and socket joint in which stability is sacrificed to obtain greater freedom of movement
Head of humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula |
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Synovial Joints: Shoulder STABILITY
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Weakness is maintained by:
thin, loose joint capsule four ligaments: coracohumeral, and three glenohumeral Tendon of the long head of biceps, which travels through the intertubercular groove and secures the humerus to the glenoid cavity Rotator cuff (four tendons) that encircles the shoulder joing and blends with the articular capsule |
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Synovial Joints: Elbow
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Hinge joint that allows flexion and extension only
Radius and ulna articulate with the humerus Compromised of: annular ligament Ulnar collateral ligament Radial collateral ligament |
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Synovial Joints: Hip (coxal) joint
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Ball and socket joint
Head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum Good range of motion, but limited by the deep socket and strong ligaments |
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Temporomadibular Joint
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Mandibular condyle articulate with the temporal bone
Two types of movement-hinge (depression and elevation of mandible) side to side (lateral excursion, grinding of teeth) |
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Sprains
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The ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretched or torn
Partially torn ligaments slowly repair themselves Completely torn ligaments require prompt surgical repair |
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Cartilage Injuries
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When overstressed, causes snap and pop
Common aerobics injury Repaired with arthroscopic surgery |
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Dislocations
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Occur when bones are forced out of alignment
Usually accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and joint immobilization Cause by serious falls and are common sports injuries Subluxation-Partial dislocation of joint |
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Inflammatory and Degenerative Conditions
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Bursitis
Tendonitis Arthritis [Osteoarthritis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Gouty Arthritis] |
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Bursitis
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An inflammation of a bursa, usually caused by a blow or friction
Symptoms are pain and swelling Treated with anti-inflammatory drugs; excessive fluid may be aspirated |
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Tendonitis
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Inflammation of tendon sheaths typically caused by overuse
Symptoms and treatment are similar to bursitis |
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Arthritis
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More than 100 different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints
Most widespread crippling disease in the US Symptoms-Pain, stiffness, and swelling of a joint Acute forms are caused by bacteria and are treated with antibiotics |
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Osteoarthritis (basics)
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Most common chronically; often called "wear and tear"
Affects women more than men 85% of all Americans develop OA More prevelant in the aged, and is probably related to the normal aging process |
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Osteoarthritis (course)
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Reflects the years of abrasion and compression causing increased production of mealloproteinases enzymes that break down cartilage
As one ages, cartilage is destroyed more quickly than it is replaced The exposed bone ends thicken, enlarge, form bone spurs, and restrict movement Joints most affected are the cervical and lumbar spine, fingers, knuckles, knees, and hips |
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Osteoarthritis (treatments)
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Slow and irreversible
Treatments include: mild pain relievers, along with moderate activity Magnetic Therapy Glucosamine sulfate decreases pain and inflammation |
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
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Chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause, with an insidious onset
Usually arises between the ages of 40 to 50, but may occur at any age Signs and symptoms include joint tenderness, anemia, osteoporosis, muscle atrophy, and cardiovascular problems. The course is marked with exacerbations and remissions |
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (Course)
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Begins with synovitis of the affected joint
Inflammatory chemicals are inappropriately released Inflammatory blood cells migrate to the joint, causing swelling Inflammed synovial membrane thickens into a pannus Pannus erodes cartilage, scar tissue forms, articulating bone ends connect The end result, ankylosis, produces bent, deformed fingers |
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (Treatment)
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Conservative therapy-aspirin, long term use of antibiotics, and physical therapy
Progressive treatment-anti-inflammatory drugs or immunosuppressants The drug Enbrel, a biological response modifier, neutralizes the harmful properties of inflammatory chemicals |
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Gouty Arthritis
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Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by an inflammation response
Typically, gouty arthritis affects the joint at the base of the great toe In untreated gouty arthritis, the bone ends fuse and immobilize the joint Treatment-colchicine, nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs, and glucocorticoids |
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Types of muscle tissue
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Skeletal
Cardiac Smooth Differ in structure, location, function, and means of activation |
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Muscle Fibers
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Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated
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Muscle contraction depends on two kinds of myofilaments
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Actin and Myosin
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Sarcolemma
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Muscle plasma membrane
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Sarcoplasm
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Cytoplasm of a muscle cell
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Muscle Prefixes
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myo-
mys- sarco- |
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Skeletal Muscle tissue
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attach to and cover the bony skeleton
Has obvious stripes called striations Is controlled voluntarily (by concious control) Contracts rapidly but tires easily Responsible for overall body motility Extremely adaptable and can exert a range of force |
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Cardiac Muscle Tissue
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Occurs only in the heart
Striated Not voluntary Contracts at a fairly steady rate set by the hearts pacemaker Neural controls allow the heart to respond to changes in the bodily needs |
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Smooth Muscle Tissue
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Found in walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory passages
Forces food and other substances through internal body channels Not striated Involuntary |
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Skeletal muscle (composed of)
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Each muscle is a discrete organ composed of muscle tissue, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue
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Skeletal Muscle: Nerve and blood supply
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Each muscle is served by one nerve, an artery, and one or more veins
Each skeletal muscle fiber is supplied with a nerve ending that controls contraction Contracting fibers require continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrients via arteries Wastes must be removed via veins |
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Skeletal Muscle: Attachments
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Most skeletal muscles span joints and are attached to bone in at least two places
When muscles contract the movable bone, the muscles insertion moves toward the immovable bone, the muscles origin. |
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Skeletal Muscles:
Attach: Directly or Indirectly |
Directly-epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum of a bone
Indirectly-connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle as a tendon or aponeurosis |
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Myofibrils
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Densely packed, rodlike contractile elements
Make up most of the muscle volume Arrangement of myfibrils within a fiber is such that a perfectly aligned repeating series of dark A bands and light I bands is evident |
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Sarcomeres
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Smallest contractile unit of a muscle
The region of a myofibril between two successive Z discs Composed of myofilaments made up of contractile proteins |
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Myofilaments: Banding pattern
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Thick filaments-extend the entire length of an A band
Thin filaments-extend across the I band and partway into the A band Z disc-coin shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another Thin filaments do not overlap thick filaments in the lighter H zone M lines appear darker due to the presence of the protein: desmin |
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Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: thick filaments
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Composed of the protein myosin
Each myosin molecule has a rod like tail and two globular heads. Tails-two interwoven, heavy polypeptide chains heads-two smaller, light polypeptide chains called cross bridges. |
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Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: Thin filaments
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Chiefly composed of the protein actin
Each actin molecule is a helical polymer of globular subunits called G actin The subunits contain the active sites to which myosin heads attach during contraction Tropomyosin and troponin are regulatory subunits bound to actin |
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
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Elaborate, smooth endoplasmic reticulum that mostly runs longitudinally and surrounds each myofibril
Paired terminal cisternae form perpendicular cross channels Functions in the regulation of intracellular calcuium levels Elongated tubes called T tubules peneterate into the cell's interior at each A band-I band junction T tubules associate with the paired terminal cisternae to form triads |
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T Tubules
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Continuous with the sarcolemma
They conduct impulses to the deepest regions of the muscles Impulses signal for the release of Ca2+ from adjacent terminal cisternae |
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Triad Relationships
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T tubules and SR provide tightly linked signals for muscle contraction
A double zipper of integral membrane proteins protrudes into the intermembrane space T tubule proteins act as voltage sensors SR foot proteins are receptors that regulate Ca2+ release from the SR cisternae |
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Sliding filament model of contraction
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Thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that the actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree
In the relaxed state, thin and thick filaments overlap only slightly Upon stimulation, myosin heads bind to actin and sliding begins Each myosin head binds and detaches several times during contraction, acting like a ratchet to generate tension and propel the thin filaments to the center of the sarcomere As this event occurs throughout the sarcomeres, the muscle shortens |
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Supination
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flipping hand (starts with hand vertical and thumb down, ends with hand vertical and thumb up)
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Pronation
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Starts with hand vertical, thumb on top, ends with hand vertical, thumb on bottom
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Inversion
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angling foot inward
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Eversion
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angling foot outward
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Protraction
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bringing jaw most forward
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Retraction
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Taking jaw most inward
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Elevation
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jaw fully closing
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Depression
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fully opening mouth
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Opposition
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bringing thumb and pointer finger together to form a circle
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Flexion
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bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint
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Extension
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joint angle is increased
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Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
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up and down movement of the foot
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Abduction
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Movement away from the midline
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Adduction
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Movement toward the midline
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Circumduction
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Movement describes a cone in space
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Synovial Joints-Range of motion
Nonaxial |
slipping movements only
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Synovial Joints-Range of motion
Uniaxial |
Movement in one plane
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Synovial Joints-Range of motion
Biaxial |
Movement in two planes
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Synovial Joints-Range of motion
Multiaxial |
movement in or around all three planes
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Synovial Joints: Movement
Origin |
attachment to the immovable bone
Described as movement along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes |
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Synovial Joints: Movement
Insertion |
attachment to the moveable bone
Described as movement along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes |
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Subluxation
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Partial dislocation of joint
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Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
Excitability or irritability |
the ability to recieve and respond to stimuli
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Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
Contractility |
the ability to shorten forcibly
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Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
Elasticity |
the ability to recoil and resume the original resting length
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Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
Extensibility |
the ability to be stretched or extended
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Muscle function
Skeletal |
responsible for all locomotion
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Muscle function
Cardiac |
responsible for coursing the blood throughout the body
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Muscle function
Smooth |
helps maintain blood pressure, and squeezes or propels substances (ie. food or feces) through organs
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General Muscle Functions
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Maintain posture, stabilize joints, and generate heat.
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Skeletal Muscle Sheaths
Endomysium |
Fine sheath of connective tissue composed of reticular fibers surrounding each muscle fiber
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Skeletal Muscle Sheaths
Perimysium |
fibrous connective tissue that surrounds groups of muscle fibers called fascicles
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Skeletal Muscle Sheaths
Epimysium |
an overcoat of dense regular connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle
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Myofilaments:
Thick filaments |
extend the entire length of an A band
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Myofilaments:
Thin |
extend across the I band and partway into the A band
Thin filaments do not overlap thick filaments in the lighter H zone |
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Myofilaments:
Z discs |
coin shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another
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M lines appear darker due to:
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the presence of the protein, desmin.
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Organization of Skeletal Muscle
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Muscle (organ)
Fascicle (portion of muscle) Muscle fiber (cell) Myofibril or fibril (complex organelle composed of bundles of myofilaments) Sarcomere (a segment of a myofibril) Myofilament or filament (extended macromolecular structure) |
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Fascicle
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Elongated multinucleate cell; banded (striated) appearance
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Organization of Skeletal Muscle:
Connective Tissue Wrappings Muscle Fascicle Muscle Fiber |
Muscle-externally by epimysium
Fascicle-surrounded by a perimysium Muscle Fiber-surrounded by the endomysium |