A&p1 Ch 2 "the Chemistry Of Life"

Front 1

WHAT IS BIOCHEMISTRY?

Back 1

THE STUDY OF THE MOLECULES THAT COMPOSE LIVING ORGANISMS--ESPECIALLY MOLECULES UNIQUE TO LIVING THINGS, SUCH AS CARBOHYDRATES, FATS, PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACID.

Front 2

What are the six "Major" elements of the body (make up 98.5% of the body's weight) and their symbols.

Back 2

oxygen (O), Carbon(C), Hydrogen (H),

Nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), and Phosphorus (P).

Front 3

What are the 6 "Lesser elements (Total 0.8%) of the body and their symbols

Back 3

Sulfur (S), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), and Iron (Fe).

Front 4

What are the 12 "Trace" elements (Total 0.7%) of the body?

Back 4

Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Fluorine (F), Iodine (I), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se), Silicon (Si), Tin (Sn), Vanadium (V), and Zinc (Zn).

Not one of them account for more than 2%

Front 5

What is a Chemical Element?

Back 5

The simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties.

Front 6

What is an atomic number?

Back 6

the number of protons in its nucleus.

Front 7

How many of the naturally occurring elements on earth play normal physiological roles in humans?

Back 7

24

Front 8

WHAT ARE MINERALS

Back 8

INORGANIC ELEMENTS THAT ARE EXTRACTED FROM THE SOIL BY PLANTS AND PASSED UP THE FOOD CHAIN TO HUMANS AND OTHER ORGANISMS.

Front 9

HOW MUCH OF THE BODY IS CONSTITUTED BY MINERALS BY WEIGHT?

Back 9

4%

NEARLY THREE-QUARTERS OF THIS IS Ca AND P; THE REST IS MAINLY Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S.

Front 10

WHAT IS A MOLECULE?

Back 10

CHEMICAL PARTICLES COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE ATOMS UNITED BY A CHEMICAL BOND

Front 11

WHAT IS A CHEMICAL COMPOUND?

Back 11

MOLECULES COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE ELEMENTS

Front 12

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF MINERALS IN THE BODY?

Back 12

THEY CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TO BODY STRUCTURE. MANY PROTEINS INCLUDE SULFUR, AND PHOSPHORUS IS A MAJOR COMPONENT OF NUCLEIC ACIDS, ATP, AND CELL MEMBRANES. MINERALS ALSO ENABLE ENZYMES AND OTHER ORGANIC MOLECULES TO FUNCTION. SOME ENZYMES FUNCTION ONLY WHEN MANGANESE, ZINC, COPPER, OR OTHER MINERALS ARE BOUND TO THEM. THE ELECTROLYTES NEEDED FOR NERVE AND MUSCLE FUNCTION ARE MINERAL SALTS.

Front 13

WHAT IS THE ATOMIC MASS OF AN ELEMENT?

Back 13

IT IS APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO ITS TOTAL NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS.

Front 14

HOW MANY ELECTRONS DOES IT TAKE TO EQUAL THE MASS OF ONE PROTON?

Back 14

1,836. SO, FOR THE MOST PART WE CAN DISREGARD THEIR MASS.

Front 15

THE NUMBER OF ELECTRON SHELLS IN ELEMENTS THAT ARE ORDINARILY INVOLVED IN HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY DO NOT EXCEED______?

Back 15

FOUR

Front 16

WHAT IS THE BASIS FOR RADIOACTIVITY?

Back 16

ALTHOUGH DIFFERENT ISOTOPES OF AN ELEMENT EXHIBIT IDENTICAL CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR, THEY DIFFER IN PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR. MANY OF THEM ARE UNSTABLE AND DECAY (BREAK DOWN) TO MORE STABLE ISOTOPES BY DIVING OFF RADIATION. UNSTABLE ISOTOPES ARE THEREFORE CALLED RADIOISOTOPES, AND THE PROCESS OF DECAY IS CALLED RADIOACTIVITY

Front 17

WHAT IS AN ISOTOPE?

Back 17

EACH OF TWO OR MORE FORMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT THAT CONTAIN EQUAL NUMBERS OF PROTONS BUT DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRONS IN THEIR NUCLEI, AND HENCE DIFFER IN RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS BUT NOT IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES; IN PARTICULAR, A RADIOACTIVE FORM OF AN ELEMENT.

Front 18

WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION?

Back 18

HIGH-ENERGY RADIATION, WHICH EJECTS ELECTRONS FROM ATOMS, CONVERTING ATOMS TO IONS.

Front 19

IN HIGH DOSES, IONIZING RADIATION IS _______?

Back 19

QUICKLY FATAL

Front 20

IN LOWER DOSES, IONIZING RADIATION CAN BE_______?

Back 20

MUTAGENIC (CAUSING MUTATIONS IN DNA) AND CARCINOGENIC (TRIGGERING CANCER AS A RESULT OF MUTATION).

Front 21

WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION?

Back 21

ULTRAVIOLET RAYS, X-RAYS, AND THREE KINDS OF RADIATION PRODUCED BY NUCLEAR DECAY: ALPHA PARTICLES, BETA PARTICLES, AND GAMMA RAYS.

Front 22

WHAT ARE THE HAZARDS OF ALPHA AND BETA PARTICLES

Back 22

THEY ARE RELATIVELY HARMLESS WHEN EMITTED BY SOURCES OUTSIDE THE BODY, BUT THEY ARE VERY DANGEROUS WHEN EMITTED BY RADIOISOTOPES THAT HAVE GOTTEN INTO THE BODY.

Front 23

WHAT IS THE PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPE?

Back 23

THE TIME REQUIRED FOR 50% OF ITS ATOMS TO DECAY TO A MORE STABLE STATE.

Front 24

WHAT IS THE BIOLOGICAL HALF -LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPE?

Back 24

THE TIME REQUIRED FOR HALF OF IT TO DISAPPEAR FROM THE BODY. SOME IS LOST BY RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND EVEN MORE BY EXCRETION FROM THE BODY.

Front 25

WHAT IS THE MOST SIGNIFICANT NATURAL SOURCE OF RADIATION?

Back 25

RADON: A GAS PRODUCED BY THE DECAY OF URANIUM IN THE EARTH: IT CAN ACCUMULATE IN BUILDINGS TO UNHEALTHY LEVELS.

Front 26

WHAT ARE SOME ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE?

Back 26

MEDICAL X-RAYS, RADIATION THERAPY, AND CONSUMER PRODUCTS SUCH AS COLOR TELEVISIONS, SMOKE DETECTORS, AND LUMINOUS WATCH DIALS.

Front 27

WHAT IS AN ION?

Back 27

CHARGED PARTICLES WITH UNEQUAL NUMBERS OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS.

Front 28

WHAT IS IONIZATION?

Back 28

IONS FORM BECAUSE ELEMENTS WITH ONE TO THREE VALENCE ELECTRONS TEND TO GIVE THEM UP, AND THOSE WITH FOUR TO SEVEN ELECTRONS TEND TO GAIN MORE. IF AN ATOM OF THE FIRST KIND IS EXPOSED TO AN ATOM OF THE SECOND, ELECTRONS MAY TRANSFER FROM ON TO THE OTHER. THIS PROCESS IS CALLED IONIZATION.

Front 29

WHAT IS AN ANION?

Back 29

IN IONIZATION, THE PARTICLE THAT GAINS ELECTRONS ACQUIRES A NEGATIVE CHARGE.

Front 30

WHAT IS A CATION?

Back 30

IN IONIZATION, THE PARTICLE THAT LOSES ELECTRONS AND ACQUIRES A POSITIVE CHARGE (BECAUSE IT THEN HAS A SURPLUS OF PROTONS).

Front 31

WHAT IS A VALENCE?

Back 31

THE CHARGE ON AN ION.

Front 32

WHAT ARE ELECTROLYTES?

Back 32

SUBSTANCES THAT IONIZE IN WATER (ACIDS, BASES, OR SALTS) AND FORM SOLUTIONS CAPABLE OF CONDUCTING ELECTRICITY.

Front 33

HOW ARE ELECTROLYTES IMPORTANT TO THE BODY?

Back 33

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY (AS WHEN CALCIUM PHOSPHATE BECOMES INCORPORATED INTO THE BONE)

OSMOTIC EFFECTS (INFLUENCE ON WATER CONTENT AND DISTRIBUTION IN THE BODY)

ELECTRICAL EFFECTS (WHICH ARE ESSENTIAL TO NERVE AND MUSCLE FUNCTION)

Front 34

WHAT ARE FREE RADICALS?

Back 34

CHEMICAL PARTICLES WITH AN ODD NUMBER OF ELECTRONS.

Front 35

HOW ARE FREE RADICALS PRODUCED?

Back 35

BY SOME NORMAL METABOLIC REACTIONS OF THE BODY (ATP - PRODUCING OXIDATION REACTIONS IN MITOCHONDRIA, AND A REACTION THAT SOME WHITE BLOOD CELLS USE TO KILL BACTERIA).

BY RADIATION (ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION AND X-RAYS)

BY CHEMICALS (NITRITES, USED AS PRESERVATIVES IN SOME WINE, MEAT, AND OTHER FOODS)

Front 36

WHAT ARE SOME DAMAGES CAUSED BY FREE RADICALS?

Back 36

SOME FORMS OF CANCER AND MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, THE DEATH OF HEART TISSUE.

Front 37

WHAT IS AN ANTIOXIDANT?

Back 37

A CHEMICAL THAT NEUTRALIZED FREE RADICALS.

Front 38

WHAT ARE SOME ANTIOXIDANTS OBTAINED FROM DIET?

Back 38

SELENIUM, VITAMIN E, VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID), AND CAROTENOIDS.

Front 39

WHAT IS AN ISOMER?

Back 39

MOLECULES WITH IDENTICAL MOLECULAR FORMULAE BUT DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF THEIR ATOMS.

Front 40

WHAT IS THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF A COMPOUND?

Back 40

THE SUM OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF ITS ATOMS.

Front 41

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS?

Back 41

IONIC BOND

COVALENT BOND

SINGLE COVALENT

DOUBLE COVALENT

NONPOLAR COVALENT

POLAR COVALENT

HYDROGEN BOND

VAN DER WAALS FORCE

Front 42

IONIC BOND

Back 42

RELATIVELY WEAK ATTRACTION BETWEEN AN ANION AND A CATION. EASILY DISRUPTED IN WATER, AS WHEN SALT DISSOLVES.

Front 43

COVALENT BOND

Back 43

SHARING OF ONE OR MORE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN NUCLEI.

Front 44

SINGLE COVALENT

Back 44

SHARING OF ONE ELECTRON PAIR.

Front 45

DOUBLE COVALENT

Back 45

SHARING OF TWO ELECTRON PAIRS. OFTEN OCCURS BETWEEN CARBON ATOMS, BETWEEN CARBON AND OXYGEN, AND BETWEEN CARBON AND NITROGEN.

Front 46

NONPOLAR COVALENT

Back 46

COVALENT BOND IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE EQUALLY ATTRACTED TO BOTH NUCLEI. MAY BE SINGLE OR DOUBLE. STRONGEST TYPE OF CHEMICAL BOND.

Front 47

POLAR COVALENT

Back 47

COVALENT BOND IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE MORE ATTRACTED TO ONE NUCLEUS THAN TO THE OTHER, RESULTING IN SLIGHTLY POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REGIONS IN ONE MOLECULE. MAY BE SINGLE OR DOUBLE.

Front 48

HYDROGEN BOND

Back 48

Weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Important in the three-dimensional folding and coiling of large molecules. Easily disrupted by temperature and pH changes.

Front 49

Van der Waals force

Back 49

WEAK, BRIEF ATTRACTION DUE TO RANDOM DISTURBANCES IN THE ELECTRON CLOUDS OF ADJACENT ATOMS. WEAKEST OF ALL BONDS.

Front 50

WHAT ARE THE BONDS OF GREATEST PHYSIOLOGICAL INTEREST?

Back 50

IONIC BONDS

COVALENT BONDS

HYDROGEN BONDS

Van der Waals force

Front 51

WHAT IS A MIXTURE?

Back 51

A MIXTURE CONSISTS OF SUBSTANCES TAT ARE PHYSICALLY BLENDED BUT NOT CHEMICALLY COMBINED.

Front 52

DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MIXTURE AND A COMPOUND.

Back 52

A MIXTURE CONSISTS OF SUBSTANCES THAT ARE PHYSICALLY BLENDED BUT NOT CHEMICALLY COMBINED. EACH SUBSTANCE RETAINS ITS OWN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.

A COMPOUND CONSISTS OF MOLECULES THAT ARE CHEMICALLY BONDED. A COMPOUND HAS PROPERTIES MUCH DIFFERENT FROM THE PROPERTIES OF ITS ELEMENTS.

Front 53

DEPENDING ON AGE, SEX, FAT CONTENT, AND OTHER FACTORS; WHAT % OF YOUR BODY WEIGHT IS WATER?

Back 53

50% - 75%

Front 54

WHAT TWO PARTICULAR ASPECTS OF WATER'S STRUCTURE ARE IMPORTANT?

Back 54

1. ITS ATOMS ARE JOINED BY POLAR COVALENT BONDS.

2. THE MOLECULE IS V-SHAPED, WITH A 105 DEGREE BOND ANGLE.

Front 55

IN WATER, WHAT SET OF PROPERTIES ACCOUNT FOR ITS ABILITY TO SUPPORT LIFE?

Back 55

SOLVENCY

COHESION

ADHESION

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

THERMAL STABILITY

Front 56

SUBSTANCES THAT DISSOLVE IN WATER ARE SAID TO BE __________

Back 56

HYDROPHILIC

Front 57

SUBSTANCES THAT DO NOT DISSOLVE IN WATER, SUCH AS FATS, ARE SAID TO BE__________

Back 57

HYDROPHOBIC

Front 58

THE ABILITY TO DISSOLVE OTHER CHEMICALS

Back 58

SOLVENCY

Front 59

THE TENDENCY OF ONE SUBSTANCE TO CLING TO ANOTHER

Back 59

ADHESION

Front 60

THE TENDENCY OF MOLECULES OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE TO CLING TO EACH OTHER

Back 60

COHESION

Front 61

THE _______________ OF WATER IS ITS ABILITY TO PARTICIPATE IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS.

Back 61

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

Front 62

THE _______________ OF WATER HELPS TO STABILIZE THE INTERNAL TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY.

Back 62

THERMAL STABILITY

Front 63

THE BASE UNIT OF HEAT

Back 63

CALORIE: 1 CAL IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT THAT RAISES THE TEMP OF 1g OF WATER 1 DEGREE CELSIUS.

WATER HAS A HIGH HEAT CAPACITY.

Front 64

WHAT ARE THE THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF MIXTURES?

Back 64

SOLUTIONS

COLLOIDS

SUSPENSIONS

Front 65

SOLUTION

Back 65

CONSISTS OF PARTICLES OF MATTER CALLED THE SOLUTE MIXED WITH A MORE ABUNDANT SUBSTANCE (USUALLY WATER) CALLED THE SOLVENT.

Front 66

PROPERTIES WHICH DEFINE A SOLUTION

Back 66

The solute particles are under 1 nanometer (n) in size. The solute and solvent therefore cannot be visually distinguished from each other, even with a microscope.

Such small particles do not scatter light noticeably, so solutions are usually transparent.

The solute particles will pass through most selectively permeable membranes.

The solute does not separate from the solvent when the solution is allowed to stand.

Front 67

THE MOST COMMON __________IN THE BODY ARE MIXTURES OF PROTEIN AND WATER, SUCH AS THE ALBUMIN IN BLOOD PLASMA.

Back 67

COLLOIDS

Front 68

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES THAT DEFINE COLLOIDS

Back 68

The colloidal particles range from 1 to 100 nm in size.

Particles this large scatter light, so colloids are usually cloudy.

The particles are too large to pass through most selectively permeable membranes.

The particles are still small enough, however, to remain permanently mixed with the solvent when the mixture stands.

Front 69

THE BLOOD CELLS IN OUR BLOOD PLASMA EXEMPLIFY A _______________

Back 69

SUSPENSION

Front 70

PROPERTIES THAT DEFINE SUSPENSIONS.

Back 70

The suspended particles exceed 100 nm in size

Such large particles render suspensions cloudy or opaque.

The particles are too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes.

The particles are too heavy to remain permanently suspended, so suspensions separate on standing. Blood cells form a suspension in blood plasma and settle when allowed to stand.

Front 71

WHAT IS AN EMULSION?

Back 71

A SUSPENSION OF ONE LIQUID IN ANOTHER, SUCH AS OIL-AND-VINEGAR SALAD DRESSING AND THE FAT IN BREAST MILK.

Front 72

CAN A MIXTURE FIT INTO MORE THAN ONE CATEGORY: SOLUTION, COLLOID, OR SUSPENSION?

Back 72

YES. BLOOD IS PERFECT EXAMPLE--IT IS A SOLUTION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE, A COLLOID OF PROTEIN, AND A SUSPENSION OF CELLS.

Front 73

SOLUTIONS ARE OFTEN DESCRIBED IN TERMS OF THEIR ____________

Back 73

CONCENTRATION--HOW MUCH SOLUTE IS PRESENT IN A GIVEN VOLUME OF A SOLUTION.

Front 74

THE DIFFERENT MEASURES OF CONCENTRATION

Back 74

WEIGHT PER VOLUME

PERCENTAGES

MOLARITY (HOW MANY MOLECULES PRESENT)

ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATIONS (Eq) or milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L)

Front 75

IF WE KNOW THE MS AND WEIGH OUT THAT MANY GRAMS OF THE SUBSTANCE, WE HAVE A QUANTITY KNOWN AS _____________.

Back 75

1 mole

Front 76

ONE ______ OF AN ELECTROLYTE IS THE AMOUNT THAT WOULD ELECTRICALLY NEUTRALIZE 1 mole HYDROGEN IONS (H+) OR HYDROXIDE IONS (OH-).

Back 76

equivalent (Eq)

CONCENTRATIONS USUALLY EXPRESSED IN milliequivalents per liter(mEq/L)

Front 77

WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW THE MOLARITY (M) OF A SOLUTION?

Back 77

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF A CHEMICAL DEPENDS ON HOW MANY MOLECULES OF IT ARE PRESENT IN A GIVEN VOLUME, NOT THE WEIGHT OF THE CHEMICAL.

Front 78

WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW THE ELECTROLYTE equivalent (Eq) of a solution?

Back 78

THEIR ELECTRICAL EFFECTS, WHICH DETERMINE SUCH THINGS AS NERVE, HEART, AND MUSCLE ACTIONS, DEPEND NOT ONLY ON THEIR CONCENTRATION BUT ALSO ON THEIR ELECTRICAL CHARGE.

Front 79

AN _________ IS ANY PROTON DONOR, A MOLECULE THAT RELEASES A PROTON (H+) IN WATER.

Back 79

ACID

Front 80

WHAT IS A MOLECULE THAT ACCEPTS A PROTON (H+)?

Back 80

A BASE

Front 81

ACIDITY IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF __ , A MEASURE DERIVED FROM THE __________ OF H+.

Back 81

pH

MOLARITY (HOW MANY MOLECULES)

Front 82

MOLARITY IS REPRESENTED BY ___.

Back 82

SQUARE BRACKETS

SO, THE MOLARITY OF H+ IS SYMBOLIZED [H+].

Front 83

pH IS THE NEGATIVE __________ OF HYDROGEN ION MOLARITY.

Back 83

LOGARITHM

pH = -log [H+]

basically means to what power

1000: 1000 = 10 X 10 X 10 = 10 to the third power

Front 84

LOGARITHM

Back 84

THE EXPONENT REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A GIVEN NUMBER

Front 85

IN PURE WATER, ______________ MOLECULES IONIZES INTO HYDROGEN AND HYDROXIDE IONS.

Back 85

1 IN 10 MILLION

Front 86

pH OF WATER IS NEUTRAL BECAUSE IT CONTAINS EQUAL AMOUNTS OF H+ AND OH-

Back 86

SINCE 1 IN 10 MILLION MOLECULES IONIZE, THE MOLARITY OF H+ AND THE pH OF WATER ARE:

[H+] = 0.0000001 = 10 to neg 7 M

log [H+] = -7

pH = -log [H+] = 7

Front 87

THE _______ THE pH VALUE, THE MORE HYDROGEN IONS A SOLUTION HAS AND THE MORE ________ IT IS.

Back 87

LOWER

ACIDIC

Front 88

SINCE THE pH scale is logarithmic, a change of one whole number on the scale represents a _______ change in H+.

Back 88

10-FOLD

A SOLUTION WITH A pH OF 4 IS 10 TIMES AS ACIDIC AS ONE WITH pH OF 5.

Front 89

NORMAL pH OF THE BLOOD

Back 89

RANGE OF 7.35 - 7.45

Front 90

CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS THAT RESIST CHANGES IN pH

Back 90

BUFFERS

Front 91

ANOTHER NAME FOR BASIC IN pH

Back 91

ALKALINE

Front 92

THE CAPACITY TO DO WORK

Back 92

ENERGY

Front 93

TO MOVE SOMETHING, WHETHER IT IS A MUSCLE OR A MOLECULE.

Back 93

WORK

Front 94

BREAKING CHEMICAL BONDS

BUILDING MOLECULES

PUMPING BLOOD

CONTRACTING SKELETAL MUSCLES

ALL OF THE BODYS ACTIVITIEIS

Back 94

EXAMPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL WORK

Front 95

ENERGY CONTAINED IN AN OBJECT BECAUSE OF ITS POSITION OR INTERNAL STATE BUT THAT IS NOT DOING WORK AT THE TIME.

Back 95

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Front 96

ENERGY OF MOTION, ENERGY THAT IS DOING WORK.

Back 96

KINETIC ENERGY

Front 97

POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN THE BONDS OF MOLECULES. CHEMICAL REACTIONS RELEASE THIS ENERGY AND MAKE IT AVAILABLE FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL WORK.

Back 97

CHEMICAL ENERGY

Front 98

THE KINETIC ENERGY OF MOLECULAR MOTION. THE TEMPERATURE OF A SUBSTANCE IS A MEASURE OF RATE OF THIS MOTION.

Back 98

HEAT

Front 99

THE KINETIC ENERGY OF MOVING "PACKETS" OF RADIATION CALLED PHOTONS.

Back 99

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

Front 100

________ HAS BOTH POTENTIAL AND KINETIC FORMS OF ENERGY.

Back 100

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Front 101

POTENTIAL ENERGY AVAILABLE IN A SYSTEM TO DO USEFUL WORK.

Back 101

FREE ENERGY

THE MOST RELEVANT FREE ENERGY IS THE ENERGY STORED IN CHEMICAL BONDS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES.

Front 102

PROCESS IN WHICH A COVALENT OR IONIC BOND IS FORMED OR BROKEN.

Back 102

CHEMICAL REACTION

Front 103

THE COURSE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION IS SYMBOLIZED BY A ______________ THAT TYPICALLY SHOWS THE REACTANTS ON THE LEFT, THE PRODUCTS ON THE RIGHT, AND A N ARROW POINTING FROM THE REACTANTS TO THE PRODUCTS.

Back 103

CHEMICAL EQUATION

Front 104

CHEMICAL REACTIONS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS____________ , _______________, OR __________.

Back 104

DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

SYNTHESIS REACTIONS

EXCHANGE REACTIONS

Front 105

A CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH A LARGE MOLECULE BREAKS DOWN INTO TWO OR MORE SMALLER ONES.

Back 105

DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

Front 106

A CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH TWO OR MORE SMALL MOLECULES COMBINE TO FORM A LARGER ONE.

Back 106

SYNTHESIS REACTIONS

Front 107

TWO MOLECULES EXCHANGE ATOMS OR GROUPS OF ATOMS.

Back 107

EXCHANGE REACTIONS

Front 108

WHAT KIND OF REACTIONS CAN GO IN EITHER DIRECTION?

Back 108

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Front 109

WHAT DETERMINES THE DIRECTION IN WHICH A REVERSIBLE REACTION GOES?

Back 109

THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SUBSTANCES ON EACH SIDE OF THE EQUATION.

Front 110

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS FOLLOW THE _______: THEY PROCEED FROM THE REACTANTS IN GREATER QUANTITY TO THE SUBSTANCES WITH THE LESSER QUANTITY.

Back 110

LAW OF MASS ACTIONS

Front 111

IN THE ABSENCE OF UPSETTING INFLUENCES, REVERSIBLE REACTIONS EXIST IN A STATE OF ______________, IN WHICH THE RATIO OF PRODUCTS TO REACTANTS IS STABLE.

Back 111

EQUILIBRIUM

Front 112

DESCRIBE CHEMICAL REACTION RATES

Back 112

CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE BASED ON MOLECULAR MOTION AND COLLISIONS. THE RATE OF A REACTION DEPENDS ON THE NATURE OF THE REACTANTS AND ON THE FREQUENCY AND FORCE OF THESE COLLISIONS.

Front 113

WHAT ARE SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES?

Back 113

CONCENTRATION

TEMPERATURE

CATALYSTS

Front 114

HOW DOES THE CONCENTRATION AFFECT REACTION RATES?

Back 114

REACTION RATES INCREASE WHEN THE REACTANTS ARE MORE CONCENTRATED. THIS IS BECAUSE THE MOLECULES ARE MORE CROWDED AND COLLIDE MORE FREQUENTLY.

Front 115

HOW DOES TEMPERATURE AFFECT REACTION RATES?

Back 115

REACTION RATE INCREASES AS THE TEMPERATURE RISES. THIS IS BECAUSE HEAT CAUSES MOLECULES TO MOVE MORE RAPIDLY AND COLLIDE WITH GREATER FORCE AND FREQUENCY.

Front 116

WHAT ARE CATALYSTS AND HOW TO THEY AFFECT REACTION RATES?

Back 116

THESE ARE SUBSTANCES THAT TEMPORARILY BIND TO REACTANTS, HOLD THEM IN A FAVORABLE POSITION TO REACT WITH EACH OTHER, AND MAY CHANGE THE SHAPES OF REACTANTS IN WAYS THAT MAKE THEM MORE LIKELY TO REACT. BY REDUCING THE ELEMENT OF CHANCE IN MOLECULAR COLLISIONS, A CATALYST SPEEDS UP A REACTION. IT THEN RELEASES THE PRODUCTS AND IS AVAILABLE TO REPEAT THE PROCESS WITH MORE REACTANTS. THE CATALYST ITSELF IS NOT CONSUMED OR CHANGED BY THE REACTION. THE MOST IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS ARE ENZYMES.

Front 117

ALL THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE BODY ARE COLLECTIVELY CALLED_____________.

Back 117

METABOLISM

Front 118

WHAT ARE THE TWO DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM?

Back 118

ANABOLISM

CATABOLISM

Front 119

CONSISTS OF ENERGY-RELEASING DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS.

Back 119

CATABOLISM (EXERGONIC)

CATO = DOWN, TO BREAK DOWN

Front 120

CONSISTS OF ENERGY-STORING SYNTHESIS REACTIONS, SUCH AS THE PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN OR FAT.

Back 120

ANABOLISM (ENDERGONIC)

ANA = UP, TO BUILD UP

Front 121

ANBOLISM IS DRIVEN BY THE ENERGY THAT CATABOLISM RELEASES, SO ENDERGONIC AND EXERGONIC PROCESSES, ANABOLISM AND CATABOLISM, ARE INSEPARABLY LINKED.

Back 121

FACT

Front 122

ANY CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH A MOLECULE GIVES UP ELECTRONS AND RELEASES ENERGY

Back 122

OXIDATION

A MOLECULE IS OXIDIZED BY THIS PROCESS

Front 123

IN OXIDATION, WHATEVER MOLECULE TAKES THE ELECTRONS FROM THE MOLECULE BEING OXIDIZED.

Back 123

OXIDIZING AGENT (ELECTRON ACCEPTOR)

MANY TIMES OXYGEN IS THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR.

Front 124

THIS TERM STEMS FROM THE FACT THAT OXYGEN IS OFTEN INVOLVED AS THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR.

Back 124

OXIDATION

Front 125

DO ALL OXIDATION REACTIONS INVOLVE OXYGEN?

Back 125

NO

EXAMPLE: WHEN YEAST FERMENTS GLUCOSE TO ALCOHOL, NO OXYGEN IS REQUIRED.

Front 126

CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH A MOLECULE GAINS ELECTRONS AND ENERGY.

Back 126

REDUCTION

Front 127

WHEN A MOLECULE ACCEPTS ELECTRONS, IT IS SAID TO BE ______________.

Back 127

REDUCED

Front 128

A MOLECULE THAT DONATES ELECTRONS TO ANOTHER IS THEREFORE CALLED A ____________.

Back 128

REDUCING AGENT (ELECTRON DONOR)

Front 129

THE OXIDATION OF ONE MOLECULE IS ALWAYS ACCOMPANIED BY THE REDUCTION OF ANOTHER, SO THESE ELECTRON TRANSFERS ARE KNOWN AS ____________________.

Back 129

OXIDATION-REDUCTION (redox) REACTIONS

Front 130

IT IS NOT NECESSARY THAT ONLY ELECTRONS BE TRANSFERED IN A REDOX REACTION. OFTEN, THE ELECTRONS ARE TRANSFERRED IN THE FORM OF ________________.

Back 130

HYDROGEN ATOMS

Front 131

REACTIONS IN WHICH THERE IS A NET RELEASE OF ENERGY. THE PRODUCTS HAVE LESS TOTAL FREE ENERGY THAN THE REACTANTS DID.

Back 131

EXERGONIC REACTIONS

Front 132

AN EXERGONIC REACTION IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE REMOVED FROM A REACTANT. ELECTRONS MAY BE REMOVED ONE OR TWO AT A TIME AND MAY BE REMOVED IN THE FORM OF HYDROGEN ATOMS (H or H2). THE PRODUCT IS THEN SAID TO BE OXIDIZED.

Back 132

OXIDATION

Front 133

A REACTION SUCH AS DIGESTION AND CELL RESPIRATION, IN WHICH LARGER MOLECULES ARE BROKEN DOWN INTO SMALLER ONES.

Back 133

DECOMPOSITION

Front 134

THE SUM OF ALL DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS IN THE BODY.

Back 134

CATABOLISM

CAT = ENERGY RELEASING

Front 135

REACTIONS IN WHICH THERE IS A NET INPUT OF ENERGY. THE PRODUCTS HAVE MORE TOTAL FREE ENERGY THAN THE REACTANTS DID.

Back 135

ENDERGONIC REACTIONS

Front 136

AN ENDERGONIC REACTION IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE DONATED TO A REACTANT. THE PRODUCT IS THEN SAID TO BE REDUCED.

Back 136

REDUCTION

Front 137

A REACTION SUCH AS PROTEIN AND GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS, IN WHICH TWO OR MORE SMALLER MOLECULES ARE COMBINED INTO A LARGER ONE.

Back 137

SYNTHESIS

Front 138

THE SUM OF ALL SYNTHESIS REACTIONS IN THE BODY.

Back 138

ANABOLISM

ANA = ENERGY STORING

Front 139

THE STUDY OF COMPOUNDS OF CARBON

Back 139

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Front 140

WHAT ARE THE FOUR PRIMARY CATEGORIES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES?

Back 140

CARBOHYDRATES

LIPIDS

PROTEINS

NUCLEIC ACID

Front 141

WHY IS CARBON ESPECIALLY WELL SUITED TO SERVE AS THE STRUCTURAL FOUNDATION FOR MANY BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES?

Back 141

THEY HAVE FOUR VALENCE ELECTRONS, SO IT BONDS WITH OTHER ATOMS THAT CAN PROVIDE IT WITH FOUR MORE TO COMPLETE ITS VALENCE SHELL. THEY CAN READILY BOND WITH EACH OTHER AND CAN FORM LONG CHAINS, BRANCHED MOLECULES, AND RINGS---AN ENORMOUS VARIETY OF CARBON BACKBONES FOR ORGANIC MOLECULES. CARBON ALSO COMMONLY FORMS COVALENT BONDS WITH HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, AND SULFUR.

Front 142

SMALL CLUSTERS OF ATOMS THAT DETERMINE MANY OF THE PROPERTIES OF AN ORGANIC MOLECULE.

Back 142

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

CARBON BACKBONES CARRY A VARIETY OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.

Front 143

WHAT ARE SOME COMMON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES?

(5 IN OUR BOOK)

Back 143

HYDROXYL (---OH)

METHYL (---CH3)

CARBOXYL (---COOH)

AMINO (---NH3)

PHOSPHATE (---H2PO4)

Front 144

HYDROXYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN

Back 144

SUGARS

ALCOHOLS

Front 145

METHYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN

Back 145

FATS

OILS

STEROIDS

AMINO ACIDS

Front 146

CARBOXYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN

Back 146

AMINO ACIDS

SUGARS

PROTEINS

Front 147

AMINO FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN

Back 147

AMINO ACIDS

PROTEINS

Front 148

PHOSPHATE FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN

Back 148

NUCLEIC ACID

ATP

Front 149

SINCE CARBON CAN FORM LONG CHAINS, SOME ORGANIC MOLECULES ARE GIGANTIC ___________ WITH MOLECULAR WEIGHTS THAT RANGE FROM THE THOUSANDS (AS IN STARCH AND PROTEINS) TO THE MILLIONS (AS IN DNA).

Back 149

MACROMOLECULES

Front 150

MOST MACROMOLECULES ARE _____________.

Back 150

POLYMERS

Front 151

MOLECULES MADE OF A REPETITIVE SERIES OF IDENTICAL OR SIMILAR SUBUNITS CALLED MONOMERS.

Back 151

POLYMERS

poly = many; mer = part

THE BEADS ARE CALLED THE MONOMERS AND THE "NECKLACE" IS THE POLYMER.

Front 152

ONE OF THE IDENTICAL OR SIMILAR SUBUNITS OF A LARGER MOLECULE IN THE DIMER TO POLYMER RANGE.

MANY OF THE SAME MOLECULES, OR SIMILAR MOLECULES.

Back 152

MONOMER

THE BEADS ARE CALLED THE MONOMERS AND THE "NECKLACE" IS THE POLYMER.

Front 153

THE JOINING OF MONOMERS TO FORM A POLYMER IS CALLED ___________________.

Back 153

POLYMERIZATION

Front 154

LIVING CELLS ACHIEVE POLYMERIZATION BY MEANS OF A REACTION CALLED_____________.

Back 154

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS. (CONDENSATION)

Front 155

A TYPE OF CONDENSATION REACTION IN WHICH MONOMERS JOIN TOGETHER INTO POLYMERS WHILE LOSING WATER MOLECULES. THIS PROCESS IS CARRIED OUT BY LOSING (-OH) FROM ONE OF THE MONOMERS AND (H) FROM ANOTHER MONOMER. THE TWO UNSTABLE MONOMERS JOIN TOGETHER, AND THE (-OH) AND (H) COMBINE FORMING WATER (H2O)

Back 155

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

Front 156

THE END RESULT OF TWO MONOMERS IN DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS.

Back 156

DIMER

(TWO COVALENTLY BONDED MONOMERS THAT HAVE WATER SUCKED OUT OF THEM)

Front 157

A CHEMICAL REACTION THAT BREAKS A COVALENT BOND IN A MOLECULE BY ADDING AN --OH GROUP TO ONE SIDE OF THE BOND AND -H TO THE OTHER SIDE, THUS CONSUMING A WATER MOLECULE.

Back 157

HYDROLYSIS

OPPOSITE OF DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

Front 158

A HYDROPHILIC ORGANIC MOLECULE WITH THE GENERAL FORMULA (CH2O)n, WHERE n REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS.

Back 158

CARBOHYDRATE

Front 159

IN CARBOHYDRATES, WHAT IS THE RATIO OF HYDROGEN TO OXYGEN?

Back 159

2:1

Front 160

WHAT ARE THE MOST FAMILIAR CARBOHYDRATES?

Back 160

SUGARS AND STARCHES

Front 161

WHAT ARE THE SIMPLEST CARBOHYDRATES, USUALLY CALLED SIMPLE SUGARS?

Back 161

MONOMERS CALLED MONOSACCHARIDES

Front 162

THE THREE MONOSACCHARIDES OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE THAT HAVE THE MOLECULAR FORMULA C6H1206 AND ARE ISOMERS OF EACH OTHER.

Back 162

GLUCOSE

FUCTOSE

GALACTOSE

Front 163

HOW DO WE OBTAIN GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND GALACTOSE?

Back 163

BY THE DIGESTION OF MORE COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES.

Front 164

WHAT ARE TWO MONOSACCHARIDES THAT ARE IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF DNA AND RNA?

Back 164

RIBOSE

DEOXYRIBOSE

Front 165

SUGARS COMPOSED OF TWO MONOSACCHARIDES

Back 165

DISACCHARIDES

Front 166

WHAT ARE THE THREE DISACCHARIDES OF GREATEST IMPORTANCE?

Back 166

SUCROSE (GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE)

LACTOSE (GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE)

MALTOSE (GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE)

Front 167

SHORT CHAINS OF THREE OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES

Back 167

OLIGOSACCHARIDES

GENERALLY A CHAIN OF 10 OR 20 MONOSACCHARIDES

Front 168

LONG CHAINS OF THREE OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES (UP TO THOUSANDS OF MONOSACCHARIDES LONG)

Back 168

POLYSACCHARIDES

GENERALLY A CHAIN OF 50 OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES

Front 169

THREE POLYSACCHARIDES OF INTEREST TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY--ALL COMPOSED SOLELY OF GLUCOSE.

Back 169

GLYCOGEN

STARCH

CELLULOSE

Front 170

AN ENERGY-STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE MADE BY CELLS OF THE LIVER, MUSCLES, BRAIN, UTERUS, AND VAGINA.

Back 170

GLYCOGEN

THIS IS THE ONLY POLYSACCHARIDE FOUND IN HUMAN TISSUE.

glyco = sugar; gen = producing

Front 171

THE CORRESPONDING ENERGY-STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE OF PLANTS.

Back 171

STARCH

Front 172

A STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE THAT GIVES STRENGTH TO THE CELL WALLS OF PLANTS.

Back 172

CELLULOSE

THE MOST ABUNDANT ORGANIC COMPOUND ON EARTH AND IT IS A COMMON COMPONENT OF THE DIETS OF HUMANS AND OTHER ANIMALS--YET WE HAVE NO ENZYMES TO DIGEST IT AND THUS DERIVE NO ENERGY OR NUTRITION FROM IT. IMPORTANT DIETARY FIBER.

Front 173

WHAT ARE, ABOVE ALL, A SOURCE OF ENERGY THAT CAN BE QUICKLY MOBILIZED.

Back 173

CARBOHYDRATES

Front 174

ALL DIGESTED CARBOHYDRATE IS ULTIMATELY CONVERTED TO ________________.

Back 174

GLUCOSE

Front 175

GLUCOSE IS OXIDIZED TO MAKE ________

Back 175

ATP, A HIGH-ENERGY COMPOUND

Front 176

CARBOHYDRATES ARE OFTEN ___________ WITH (COVALENTLY BOUND TO) PROTEINS AND LIPIDS.

Back 176

CONJUGATED

con = together; jug = join

Front 177

HOW ARE GLYCOLIPIDS AND GLYCOPROTEINS ARE FORMED?

Back 177

MANY OF THE LIPID AND PROTEIN MOLECULES AT THE EXTERNAL SURFACE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE HAVE CHAINS OF UP TO 12 SUGARS ATTACHED TO THEM, THUS FORMING GLYCOLIPIDS AND GLYCOPROTEINS.

Front 178

MACROMOLECULES IN WHICH THE CARBOHYDRATE COMPONENT IS DOMINANT AND A PEPTIDE OR PROTEIN FORMS A SMALLER COMPONENT.

Back 178

PROTEOGLYCANS

Front 179

HOW SHOULD WE REFER TO EACH CHEMICALLY DIFFERENT COMPONENT OF CONJUGATED MACROMOLECULES?

Back 179

moiety

PROTEOGLYCANS HAVE A PROTEIN MOIETY AND A CARBOHYDRATE MOIETY.

Front 180

A HYDROPHOBIC ORGANIC MOLECULE, USUALLY COMPOSED ONLY OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN, WITH A HIGH RATIO OF HYDROGEN TO OXYGEN.

Back 180

LIPID

Front 181

WHY DO LIPIDS HAVE MORE CALORIES PER GRAM?

Back 181

BECAUSE THEY ARE LESS OXIDIZED THAN CARBOHYDRATES.

Front 182

THE FIVE PRIMARY TYPES OF LIPIDS IN HUMANS

Back 182

FATTY ACIDS

TRIGLYCERIDES

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

EICOSANOIDS

STEROIDS

Front 183

A CHAIN OF USUALLY 4 TO 24 CARBON ATOMS WITH A CARBOXYL GROUP AT ONE END AND A METHYL GROUP AT THE OTHER

Back 183

FATTY ACID

Front 184

FATTY ACIDS ARE USUALLY CLASSIFIED AS

Back 184

SATURATED

OR

UNSATURATED

Front 185

___________HAS AS MUCH HYDROGEN AS IT CAN CARRY. NO MORE COULD BE ADDED WITHOUT EXCEEDING FOUR COVALENT BONDS PER CARBON ATOM.

Back 185

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Front 186

WHY ARE UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS "UNSATURATED?"

Back 186

BECAUSE SOME CARBON ATOMS ARE JOINED BY DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS. EACH OF THESE COULD POTENTIALLY SHARE ONE PAIR OF ELECTRONS WITH ANOTHER HYDROGEN ATOM INSTEAD OF THE ADJACENT CARBON, SO HYDROGEN COULD BE ADDED TO THIS MOLECULE.

Front 187

THOSE FATTY ACIDS WITH MANY C=C BONDS.

Back 187

POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Front 188

FATTY ACIDS THAT MUST BE OBTAINED FROM THE DIET BECAUSE WE CANNOT SYNTHESIZE THEM.

Back 188

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

Front 189

A MOLECULE CONSISTING OF THREE-CARBON ALCOHOL CALLED GLYCEROL LINKED TO THREE FATTY ACIDS.

Back 189

TRIGLYCERIDES

ALSO KNOWN AS TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

Front 190

EACH BOND BETWEEN A FATTY ACID AND GLYCEROL IS FORMED BY _______________.

Back 190

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

Front 191

WHEN IS A FATTY ACID NO LONGER AN ACID.

Back 191

WHEN IT IS JOINED WITH A GLYCEROL, A FATTY ACID CAN NO LONGER DONATE A PROTON TO A SOLUTION AND IS THEREFORE NO LONGER AN ACID. THIS IS WHY A TRIGLYCERIDES ARE CALLED NEUTRAL FATS

Front 192

TRIGLYCERIDES THAT ARE LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.

Back 192

OILS

HOWEVER, THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FAT AND AN OIL IS FAIRLY ARBITRARY.

Front 193

__________ IS A NATURAL PRODUCT OF THE BODY AND IS NECESSARY FOR HUMAN HEALTH. IN ADDITION TO BEING THE PRECURSOR OF OTHER STEROIDS, IT IS AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES AND IS REQUIRED FOR PROPER NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION.

Back 193

CHOLESTEROL

Front 194

PRIMARILY, WHERE DOES OUR BODY INTERNALLY SYNTHESIZE CHOLESTEROL?

Back 194

PRIMARILY BY THE LIVER (85%)

THE OTHER 15% COMES FROM OUR DIET.

Front 195

STEROIDS THAT AID IN FAT DIGESTION AND NUTRIENT ABSORPTION

Back 195

LIPID FUNCTIONS OF BILE ACIDS

Front 196

COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES; PRECURSOR OF OTHER STEROIDS

Back 196

LIPID FUNCTION OF CHOLESTEROL

Front 197

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS BETWEEN CELLS

Back 197

LIPID FUNCTION OF EICOSANOIDS

Front 198

INVOLVED IN A VARIETY OF FUNCTIONS INCLUDING BLOOD CLOTTING, WOUND HEALING, VISION, AND CALCIUM ABSORPTION.

Back 198

LIPID FUNCTION OF FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS (A,D,E, and K).

Front 199

PRECURSOR OF TRIGLYCERIDES; SOURCE OF ENERGY

Back 199

LIPID FUNCTION OF FATTY ACIDS

Front 200

MAJOR COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES; AID IN FAT DIGESTION

Back 200

LIPID FUNCTION OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Front 201

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS BETWEEN CELLS

Back 201

LIPID FUNCTION OF STEROID HORMONES

Front 202

ENERGY STORAGE; THERMAL INSULATION; FILLING SPACE; BINDING ORGANS TOGETHER; CUSHIONING ORGANS

Back 202

LIPID FUNCTIONS OF TRIGLYCERIDES.

Front 203

GLUCOSE (BLOOD SUGAR--ENERGY SOURCE FOR MOST CELLS

GALACTOSE (CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE AND METABOLIZED)

FRUCTOSE (FRUIT SUGAR--CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE AND METABOLIZED)

Back 203

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES CALLED MONOSACCHARIDES

Front 204

SUCROSE (CANE SUGAR--DIGESTED TO GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE)

LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR--DIGESTED TO GLUCOSE AND GALACTOSE; IMPORTANT IN INFANT NUTITION)

MALTOSE (MALT SUGAR--PRODUCT OF STARCH DIGESTION, FURTHER DIGESTED TO GLUCOSE)

Back 204

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES CALLED DISACCHARIDES

Front 205

CELLULOSE (STUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE OF PLANTS)

STARCH (ENERGY STORAGE IN PLANT CELLS)

GLYCOGEN (ENERGY STORAGE IN ANIMAL CELLS--LIVER, MUSCLE, BRAIN, UTERUS, VAGINA)

Back 205

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES CALLED POLYSACCHARIDES

Front 206

GLYCOPROTEIN (COMPONENT OF THE CELL SURFACE COAT AND MUCUS, AMONG OTHER ROLES

GLYCOLIPID (COMPONENT OF THE CELL SURFACE COAT)

PROTEOGLYCAN (CELL ADHESION; LUBRICATION; SUPPORTIVE FILLER OF SOME TISSUES AND ORGANS.

Back 206

FUNCTIONS OF THE CARBOHYDRATE CALLED CONJUGATED CARBOHYDRATES.

REFER TO EACH CHEMICALLY DIFFERENT COMPONENT AS A moiety

Front 207

A POLYMER OF AMINO ACIDS.

ALSO, THE MOST VERSATILE MOLECULE IN THE BODY.

Back 207

PROTEIN

Front 208

DESCRIBE AN AMINO ACID

Back 208

AN AMINO ACID HAS A CENTRAL CARBON ATOM WITH AN AMINO (-NH2) AND A CARBOXYL (-COOH) GROUP BOUND TO IT.

Front 209

THE 20 AMINO ACIDS USED TO MAKE PROTEINS ARE IDENTICAL EXCEPT FOR A THIRD FUNCTIONAL GROUP CALLED THE _____________

Back 209

radical (R group)

Front 210

SOME RADICALS ARE ________ AND SOME ARE ___________

Back 210

HYDROPHILIC

HYDROPHOBIC

Front 211

WHAT ARE THE 20 AMINO ACIDS INVOLVED IN PROTEINS?

Back 211

ALANINE (Ala) LEUCINE (Leu)

ARGININE (Arg) LYSINE (Lys)

APARAGINE (Asn) METHIONINE (Met)

ASPARTIC ACID (Asp) PHENYLALANINE (Phe)

CYSTEINE (Cys) PROLINE (Pro)

GLUTAMINE (Gln) SERINE (Ser)

GLUTAMIC ACID (Glu) THREONINE (Thr)

GLYCINE (Gly) TRYPTOPHAN (Trp)

HISTIDINE (His) TYROSINE (Tyr)

ISOLEUCINE (Ile) VALINE (Val)

Front 212

ANY MOLECULE COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS

Back 212

PEPTIDE

Front 213

DESCRIBE A PEPTIDE BOND

Back 213

A PEPTIDE BOND IS FORMED BY DEHYDRATION SYNTHESES AND JOINS THE AMINO GROUP OF ONE AMINO ACID TO THE CARBOXYL GROUP OF THE NEXT

Front 214

PEPTIDES ARE NAMED FOR THE NUMBER OF___________

Back 214

AMINO ACIDS THEY HAVE.

EX: DIPEPTIDES HAVE TWO AND TRIPEPTIDES HAVE THREE.

Front 215

PEPTIDES WITH FEWER THAN 10 OR 15 AMINO ACID CHAINS ARE CALLED______________

Back 215

OLIGOPEPTIDES

oligo = a few

Front 216

PEPTIDES WITH MORE THAN 15 AMINO ACID CHAINS ARE CALLED____________

Back 216

POLYPEPTIDES

Front 217

A POLYPEPTIDE OF 50 AMINO ACIDS OR MORE

Back 217

PROTEIN

Front 218

DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS WEIGHTS OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS

Back 218

A TYPICAL AMINO ACID HAS A MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF ABOUT 80 amu, AND THE MOLECULAR WEIGHTS OF THE SMALLEST PROTEINS ARE AROUND 4,000 TO 8,000 amu. THE AVERAGE PROTEIN WEIGHS IN AT ABOUT 30,000 amu, AND SOME OF THEM HAVE MOLECULAR WEIGHTS IN THE HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS.

Front 219

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN

Back 219

PROTEINS HAVE COMPLEX COILED AND FOLDED STRUCTURES THAT ARE CRITICALLY IMPORTANT TO THE ROLES THEY PLAY. EVEN SLIGHT CHANGES IN THEIR CONFORMATION (three-dimensional shape) CAN DESTROY PROTEIN FUNCTION. PROTEIN MOLECULES HAVE THREE TO FOUR LEVELS OF COMPLEXITY, FROM PRIMARY THROUGH QUATERNARY STRUCTURE.

Front 220

PROTEIN'S SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS, WHICH IS ENCODED IN THE GENES.

Back 220

PRIMARY STRUCTURE

Front 221

IN PROTEINS, A COILED OR FOLDED SHAPE HELD TOGETHER BY HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN THE SLIGHTLY NEGATIVE C==O GROUP OF ONE PEPTIDE BOND AND TEH SLIGHTLY POSITIVE N---H GROUP OF ANOTHER ONE SOME DISTANCE AWAY.

Back 221

SECONDARY STRUCTURE

Front 222

WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON SECONDARY STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS?

Back 222

THEY ARE A SPRINGLIKE SHAPE CALLED THE alpha helix AND A PLEATED, RIBBONLIKE SHAPE, THE beta sheet.

Front 223

Describe a Tertiary structure of proteins

Back 223

Tertiary structure is formed by the further bending and folding of proteins into various globular and fibrous shapes. It results from hydrophobic radicals associating with each other and avoiding water, while the hydrophilic radicals are attracted to the surrounding water. Van der Waals forces play a significant role in stabilizing tertiary structure.

Front 224

What is a disulfide bridge?

Back 224

Disulfide bridges function to stabilize a protein's tertiary structure. When two amino acids called cysteine (whose radical is ---CH2---SH), align with each other, each can release a hydrogen atom, leaving the sulfur atoms to form a disulfide bridge (---S---S---). Disulfide bridges hold separate polypeptide chains together in such molecules as antibodies and insulin.

Front 225

Describe a Quaternary structure.

Back 225

Quaternary structure is the association of two or more polypeptide chains by noncovalent forces such as ionic bonds and hydrophilic-hydrophobic interactions. It occurs in only some proteins.

Front 226

What is one of the most important properties of proteins.

Back 226

It is their ability to change conformation (three-dimensional shape), especially tertiary structure.

Subtle, reversible changes in conformation are important to processes such as enzyme function, muscle contraction, and the opening and closing of pores in cell membranes.

Front 227

What is denaturation?

Back 227

a more drastic conformational change in response to conditions such as extreme heat or pH. Denaturation makes a protein unable to perform its normal functions.

Front 228

Simple definition of Primary structure

Back 228

Sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

Front 229

Simple definition of Secondary structure

Back 229

Alpha helix of beta sheet formed by hydrogen bonding

Front 230

Simple definition of Tertiary structure

Back 230

Folding and coiling due to interactions among R groups and between R groups and surrounding water.

Front 231

Simple definition of Quaternary structure

Back 231

Association of two or more polypeptide chains with each other.

Front 232

Conjugated proteins have a non-amino acid moiety called a ___________ covalently bound to them.

Back 232

prosthetic group

moiety is what each chemically different component of a conjugated macromolecule is referred to as.

Front 233

What are the functions of proteins?

Back 233

Sructure

Communication

Membrane transport

Catalysis

Recognition and protection

Movement

Cell adhesion

Front 234

What is a ligand?

It is part of the communication function of proteins.

Back 234

Any hormone or other molecule that reversibly binds to a protein.

Some hormones and other cell-to-cell signals are proteins

Front 235

Describe membrane transport of proteins

Back 235

Some proteins form channels in cell membranes that govern what passes through the membranes ad when. Others act as carriers tha briefly bind to solute particles and transport them to the other side of the membrane. Among their other roles, such proteins turn nerve and muscle activity on and off.

Front 236

Describe Catalysis of proteins

Back 236

Most metabolic pathways or the body are controlled by enzymes, which are globular proteins that function as catalysts.

Front 237

Describe how proteins function in recognition and protection

Back 237

Antibodies and other proteins attack and neutralize organisms that invade the body. Clotting proteins protect the body against blood loss.

Front 238

Describe how proteins function in the movement of the body.

Back 238

Proteins, with their special ability to change shape repeatedly, are the basis for all such movement. Some proteins are called molecular motors (motorproteins) for this reason.

Front 239

Describe how proteins function in cell adhesion.

Back 239

Proteins bind cells to each other, which enables sperm to fertilize eggs, enables immune cells to bind to enemy cancer cells, and keeps tissues from falling apart.

Front 240

Describe enzymes and what they do.

Back 240

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. They enable biochemical reactions to occur rapidly at normal body temperatures. They lower the activation energy to oxidize glucose to water and carbon dioxide.

Front 241

What is a substrate?

Back 241

The substance the enzyme acts upon; sometimes refers to the enzyme's action; and adds the suffix -ase.

Front 242

Describe the three principal steps of an Enzymatic Reaction

Back 242

1. A substrate molecule approaches a pocket on the enzyme surface called the active site.

2. The substrate binds to the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.

3. The reaction products are released.

Front 243

Is an enzyme consumed by the raction is catalyzes?

Back 243

No

Therefore, one enzyme molecule can consume millions of substrate molecules at an astonishing speed.

Front 244

What are the factors that change the shape of an enzyme?

Back 244

Notably, temperature and pH. These tend to alter or destroy the ability of the enzyme to bind its substrate.

Front 245

About two-thirds of human enzymes require a non-protein partner called a ____________

Back 245

Cofactor

Inorganic cofactors include iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, and calcium inos.

Front 246

Organic cofactors usually derived from niacin, riboflavin, and other water-soluble vitamins.

Back 246

Coenzymes

They accept electrons from an enzyme in one metabolic pathway and transfer them to an enzyme in another.

Front 247

A chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme.

Back 247

Metobolic Pathways

These have an initial reactant, intermediates and the end product.

Front 248

Organic compounds with three principal components: a single or double carbon-nitrogen ring called a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and one or more phosphate groups

Back 248

Nucleotides

Front 249

Describe Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Back 249

The body's most important energy-transfer molecule. It is a nucleotide that briefly stores energy gained from exergonic reactions such as glucose oxidation and releases it within seconds for physiological work such as plymerization reactions, muscle contraction, and pumping ions through cell membranes.

Front 250

Specialized enzymes that hydrolyze the third phosphate bond, producing adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Back 250

adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases)

Front 251

Much of the energy for ATP synthesis comes from glucose oxidation. The first stage in glucose oxidation is the reaction pathway known as ___________

Back 251

glycolysis (sugar splitting)

Front 252

Describe anaerobic fermentation

Back 252

What happens to pyruvic acid in glycolysis depends on how much oxygen is available relative to ATP demand. When the demand for ATP outpaces the oxygen supply, excess pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid by a pathway called anaerobic fermentation.

Front 253

What are the disadvantages of anaerobic fermentation?

Back 253

1. it does not extract any more energy from pyruvic acid;

2. the lactic acid it produces is toxic, so most cells can use anaerobic fermentation only as a temporary measure.

Front 254

What is the only advantage of anaerobic fermentation?

Back 254

The only advantage to this pathway is that it enables glycolysis to continue and thus enables a cell to continue producing a small amount of ATP.

Front 255

Describe aerobic respiration.

Back 255

This more efficient pathway happens when there is enough oxygen. This breaks pyruvic acid down to carbon dioxide and water and generates up to 36 more molecules of ATP for each of the original glucose molecules. The reactions of aerobic respiration are carrried out in the cell's mitochondria, so mitochondria are regarded as a cell's principal "ATP factories."

Front 256

Describe the nucleotide Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

Back 256

A nucleotide involved in energy transfers. In some reactions, it donates phosphate groups to other molecules. For example, it can donate its third phosphate group to ADP to regenerate ATP.

Front 257

Describe the nucleotide Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

Back 257

It is formed by the removal of both the second and third phosphate groups from ATP. In many cases, when a hormone or other chemical signal ("first messenger") binds to a cell surface, it triggers and internal reaction that converts ATP to cAMP. The cAMP then acts as a "second messenger" to activate metabolic effects within the cell.

Front 258

Polymers of nucleotides

Back 258

Nucleic Acids

The largest nucleic acid is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); typically 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long.

Front 259

Describe deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Back 259

It is the largest of the nucleic acids. They are typically 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long. It constitutes our genes, gives instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins, and transfers hereditary information from cell to cell when cells divide and from generation to generation when organisms reproduce.

Front 260

ATP production

Back 260

Glycolysis produces pyruvic acid and a net gain of two ATPs. Anaerobic fermentation converts pyretic acid to lactic acid and permits glycolysis to continue producing ATP in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration produces a much greater ATP yield but requires oxygen.