Adv 481 Exam 3 Final Set

Front 1

4 levels of measurement

Back 1

Nominal, ordinal, interval, & ratio

Front 2

Sources of Random Error

Back 2

•Due to temporary aspects of the person or measurement situation and what affects the measurement in irregular ways
•Mood, state of health, fatigue, situation in which the measure is taken, ambiguity of question

Front 3

4 cognitive steps in answering questions

Back 3

1. UNDERSTAND question
2. SEARCH memory for info
3. INTEGRATE information into summary judgment
4. MAP judgment onto response alternatives (write it down)
(optimizing vs satisficing)

Front 4

What is Satisficing?

Back 4

a heuristic that satisfies the minimum requirements, when ability or task is difficult, respondent motivation low, just agree with assertions

Front 5

What is optimizing?

Back 5

adopting a strategy to select the best possible solution from the available options.
*Your goal in writing questions is to get people to optimize

Front 6

What is weak satisficing? What is strong satisficing?

Back 6

---Weak satisficing: Respondent executes all cognitive steps involved in optimizing, but less completely and with bias.
---Strong satisficing: Respondent offers responses that will seem reasonable to the interviewer without any memory search or information integration. Skipping 2nd and 3rd step

Front 7

Causes of satisficing?

Back 7

1. Respondent motivation (overcome by offering incentive)
2. Respondent availability
3. Task difficulty

Front 8

Results of satisficing?

Back 8

1. Select first reasonable response
2. Agree with assertions (acquiescence)
3. Non-differentiating among ratings
4. “don’t know”
5. Mental coin-flipping
6. Response order effects

Front 9

Nominal questions - definition

Back 9

-Used to classify responses & respondents
-Defined by response options that are exhaustive & mutually exclusive

Front 10

Three types of nominal level questions?

Back 10

1. Dichotomous questions
2. Multiple-choice questions
3. Checklists

Front 11

Dichotomous Question - definition

Back 11

-simplest type of nominal measurement
-USE TO: classify individuals, objects, attitudes, or other responses into one of two exhaustive, mutually exclusive groups

EXAMPLES:
-most common form is "yes or no" question
-can also be when you have to divide respondents into two groups
EX: "do you prefer coke or pepsi?"

Front 12

Advantages of Dichotomous questions

Back 12

-Easy to answer
-Simple to edit, code, tabulate, analyze
-Move respondents through the questionnaire (establish skip patterns)

Front 13

What is a "skip pattern"?

Back 13

AKA Skip logic
-Dichotomous questions
-Selects appropriate next question based on individual's response

Front 14

Multiple Choice Question - definition

Back 14

-Nominal
-Present 3 or more exclusive & exhaustive categories of response
-USE TO: -categorize characteristics or attributes of respondents or responses into smaller, focused categories

Front 15

Vargas’s requirements for question success

Back 15

1. Must be exhaustive
2. Must be exclusive
3. If you want a number, just ask for the number
4. “Other” is not a very effective answer choice

Front 16

How to write Multiple Choice questions

Back 16

1. Make sure categories are exhaustive & exclusive
2. Put choices in alphabetical order (Don't bias the respondent)
3. When using M/C to probe behaviors.....
----a. provide a "zero" option
----b. make sure response categories are nearly balanced intervals
----c. "typical" behavior appears near the center of the list.

Front 17

Advantages of Multiple Choice questions

Back 17

1. Flexible format
2. Appropriate to a wide range of situations
3. Easier to code, tabulate, edit, & analyze than open-ended

Front 18

Dichotomous vs Multiple Choice

Back 18

Dichotomous is only used when entire range is two categories

Front 19

Checklist - definition

Back 19

-Nominal
-Combines a series of related dichotomous questions into one single question
-Less time-consuming & tedious than asking each question individually

Front 20

How to write a Checklist

Back 20

1. Clearly define the criteria on which items in the checklist should be selected.
2. Do not assume that the respondent will check any specific number of items ("as many or as few or even no items as you like")
3. Reduce bias (put all choices alphabetically. Attitude choices should have equal number of pos and neg)

Front 21

Vargas’s recommendation to overcome response order effects?

Back 21

1. create different versions of the questionnaire
2. randomize order

Front 22

Ordinal Level Questions - Definition

Back 22

-Asks respondents to order a list of items according to a specific criteria
-Informs researcher about relative ordering of items but NOT distance between items
-Rank questions

Front 23

Rank order questions - definition

Back 23

-Present respondent with several characteristics, objects, or attributes & then request that the respondent orders or ranks them with respect to a specific characteristic

Front 24

How to write a rank order question

Back 24

1. Clearly state respondent's task ("rate X")
2. Identify characteristic to be used in ranking ("overall appeal")
3. Explain method to perform the ranking ("use '1' for most appealing," etc)
4. Put answer choices in alphabetical order
5. Use no more than 6 items

Front 25

Interval Level Questions - Definition

Back 25

-provides information on the rank order of items AND provides distance between items
-Rating scales most common

Types:
-Rating Scale (most common)
-Semantic Differential

Front 26

Rating Scales definition

Back 26

-Interval
-Require respondent to select one option from the members of an explicit, well-defined continuum

Front 27

How to write an interval-level question

Back 27

1. Unbiased lead-in (explicitly state both ends of the rating scale
2. Equal intervals (spaces) between scale points.
3. Direct correspondence between information requested in the question itself and the scale used to gather info.
(EX: question asks how believable something was, answer choices should be "very believable, not believable, etc)

Front 28

How to write interval-level answer choices

Back 28

1. Determine the # of categories to use. (between 4-7 are ideal)
2. Determine whether the scale should be balanced or unbalanced. (use unbalanced when you generally know the direction of their answer but want finer distinctions on one end)
3. Use a neutral option (odd #)
4. Decide if you will use a frame of reference

Front 29

2 Characteristics of a balanced scale

Back 29

1. Equal number of pos & neg choices
2. Response options mirror each other

Front 30

2 reasons you should NOT use an unbalanced scale

Back 30

1. Bias
2. Problems with data analysis & interpretation

Front 31

What is a noncomparative rating scale?

Back 31

Interval
Asks a respondent to assign a rating without an explicit frame of reference
"How believable is X?"

Front 32

What is a comparative rating scale?

Back 32

Interval
Provides a frame of reference
"How believable is X compared to Y?"
**don’t do a lot of these, minimizes satisficing**

Front 33

What is a semantic differential?

Back 33

*Interval
-Asks a respondent to rate an object on a number of related, seven-point scales bounded on each end by one of two bipolar adjectives.
EX:
Trustworthy__ __ __ __ __ __ __ Untrustworthy
Sincere__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Insincere

Front 34

Two considerations of semantic differential scales

Back 34

1. It may be unfamiliar to respondents. (must have clear instructions)
2. Take care in placing the adjectives (alternate pos & neg to make sure respondent reads all choices)

Front 35

Optimal labels for a five-point scale

Back 35

Extremely, Very, Moderately, Slightly, Not at all

Front 36

Vargas’s recommendations for scale points?

Back 36

2: agree/disagree
3: favorable, neutral, unfavorable
4: all or most, some, a little, none
Use unipolar, if you’re administering it verbally use bipolar

Front 37

Unipolar vs Bipolar scale?

Back 37

Unipolar: 5 choices, not at all to very
Bipolar: 7 points, branched. Use with verbal administration. Start with like, neither, dislike. Then ask “do you like/dislike it a lot? A little?”

Front 38

How to accurately calculate response?

Back 38

RESPONSE = attitude + other constructs + method bias + random order
-on a 1-7 scale
-attitude = 5 (what they selected)
-mood = +1
-method bias = -1
-random error = +1
REPORT = 6

Front 39

Vargas’s tips for creating scales

Back 39

-numbers alone are ambiguous (longer= more ambiguous)
-partial labeling- labels may attract people (end points)
-vague, overly-specific
-effort (unlabeled requires interpretation, labeled requires reading/interpreting labels)
-administration: difficult to administer numbers scales over phone

Front 40

Ratio Level Questions - Definition

Back 40

-Measure objects, behaviors, and beliefs on a continuum with a fixed, zero origin
-Placement reflects degree to which the measured object, behavior, or belief possesses the target characteristic.
-Common form: constant sum

Front 41

What is a constant sum question?

Back 41

-Ratio
-Requires respondent to divide a present quantity (the constant sum) among 2+ objects/attributes in a way that reflects the respondent's relative preference for each object

Front 42

How to write a constant-sum question?

Back 42

1. Focus for allocation is explicit (EX, "appeal to you")
2. Clearly describe respondent's task (EX: "allocate the points")
3. Make criteria for point allocation clear (EX: "the more points you assign something, the higher importance..")
4. Number of options needs to be manageable (7 or less items is ideal)
5. Determine number of points to be allocated (25 or 100 is ideal)

Front 43

Vargas’s 3 considerations for constant sum

Back 43

1. Manageable number of options
2. Reasonable number of points
3. Easily divisible number of points

Front 44

3 considerations for open-ended questions?

Back 44

1. The question must be truly open-ended. (don't introduce bias)
2. Incorporate probes ("is there anything else?")
3. The question should be single-minded. (EX: don't ask "what are strengths AND weaknesses of X?)

Front 45

What the heck is frequency estimates?

Back 45

Deals with survey questions that ask for a number
Problem: assumes answers are how things are normally distributed in the population
Solutions:
-pretest to find normative range and construct intervals that approximate it.
-Ask respondents to write down a number instead of giving options.

Front 46

8 Rules for ALL question development?

Back 46

1. Clearly state the respondent's task in simple language
2. Use simple, active sentences & commonly used language
3. Avoid bias
4. Avoid multiple informational requests in a single question.
5. Avoid ambiguity.
6. Avoid assumptions ("what, IF ANYTHING, ....")
7. Justify requests for personal information.
8. Provide a reasonable time frame for behavioral questions. (ask about the last 24hrs, not month)

Front 47

Common problems with questionnaires

Back 47

--double-barreled questions
--double negatives
--mismatch between response options and questions
--non-exclusive
--leading, loaded questions (emotionally charged question)
--conversational norms

Front 48

Solving problems when making questionnaires

Back 48

-Use simple language
-Use words with only 1 meaning
-Ask about one thing at a time
-Specify details (who, what, where, when)
-Use appropriate time frames
-Provide cues to aid memory
-Pre-testing to understand cognitive processes and determining potential problems
-Minimize cognitive burden
-Avoid cues for satisficing (agree-disagree)

Front 49

What are item-specific responses?

Back 49

Example question would be like "how important is this issue to you..."

Front 50

What are agree-type responses?

Back 50

Example question would be like "to what extent do you agree with this statement..."

Front 51

What is acquiescence?

Back 51

Presenting the answer in the question
EX: “should abortion be illegal?”

Front 52

Reasons for acquiescence?

Back 52

-norms of conduct: be polite and agreeable
-status differential: defer to higher status
-satisficing: hypothesis confirmation bias (default is truth)

Front 53

Recommendations to resolve acquiescence?

Back 53

--rephrase questions to be “how important is X” instead of “should X be _________” or “do you favor or oppose X”
--Ask people questions instead of presenting them with the answer
--create two forms

Front 54

What is Razorfish & what did they find?

Back 54

-One of the world's largest interactive marketing & technology companies
-Digital Brand Experience Report/2009

-Consumer experience matters!!
-Consumers are digitally engaged with brands

Front 55

What is Cossette & what did they find?

Back 55

-international, full-service communications company with offices in Canada, US, and UK.
-one of top communications companies in the world
2009 Social Media Study

Front 56

What are the 8 steps in questionnaire design & construction?

Back 56

1. Determine data collection method // determine need for disguise.
2. Create questionnaire components
3. Physically prepare questionnaire
4. Internal evaluation
5. Pretest
(6. Revision, as needed. Return to 4)
7. Finalize questionnaire
8. Prepare field support materials

Front 57

4 types of data collection for surveys & what they are best used for?

Back 57

4 approaches: interviews, mail, telephone, online

-Not face to face = less complex questionnaire
-Self-administered questionnaires = written for the "eye", use pictures if you want
-telephone = write for "ear"

Front 58

Vargas’s 6 components of a questionnaire

Back 58

1. Intro
2. Screener
3. Main Body
4. Background Info
5. Post-interview questions (demographics/classifications)
6. Transitions

Front 59

What are the goals of an introduction in a survey?

Back 59

GOAL: motivate respondent to participate

-Explain goals and purpose of the research
-Ask for respondent's cooperation & participation in the study
-Wording depends on need for disguise, complexity, and sensitive nature of data collected

Front 60

What are the components to an introduction in a survey?

Back 60

-Reference to importance
-Information on the rationale & goals of the research
-clear request for participation
-reassurance that participating is not difficult or time-consuming
-Need for truthful answers
-promise of confidentiality
-reassurance that the research is legit

Front 61

What are the components to the main body of a survey?

Back 61

-Begin with simple, nonthreatening, interesting, easy-to-answer questions
-Group questions on the same topic together, complete one topic before moving on to another
-Within a topic, move from general to most specific
-Place difficult/sensitive questions at the end
-Avoid biasing questions later with questions asked earlier
-Address most important topics first

Front 62

What are the 3 areas to address in the questionnaire design?

(step in process= physically prepare the questionnaire)

Back 62

Three areas to address:
1. visual appearance
2. transitions between major topic areas and between individual questions
3. interviewer/respondent instructions

Front 63

Components to self-administered questionnaire design?

(step in process= physically prepare the questionnaire)

Back 63

-Design is most important to self-administered questionnaire
-Should be uncluttered, easy to follow, typed in easy-to-read typeface.
-Good visual appearance and layout
-Questions visually distinct from responses
-Response coding is unobtrusive
-Questions do not continue across columns or pages
-Columns are use to help maintain the respondent's focus, save space, and simplify response.

Front 64

What are 2 considerations in online questionnaire design?

(step in process= physically prepare the questionnaire)

Back 64

Two considerations:
1. Form & visual appearance
2. Range of question types available
3. Way in which specific questions are presented

Front 65

How to create the form & visual appearance of an online questionnaire?

(step in process= physically prepare the questionnaire)

Back 65

-Use of pictures is not trivial. Should have a specific function, real and meaningful link to research
-Carefully consider how many questions to present on a single web page
-Understand the relationship between space provided & depth of response in open-ended q's
-Input box labels affect the quality of data provided
-Not all response formats for closed-ended questions are equivalent

Front 66

How to conduct an internal evaluation?

(step in process= physically prepare the questionnaire)

Back 66

Make certain that:
-the questionnaire is complete & concise
-the questions themselves are clear & appropriate
-The layout is clear & easy to follow

Front 67

Pretest - Common problem areas

Back 67

1. Problems with administration
2. Problems related to question comprehension
3. Problems related to question demands
4. Problems related to response options
5. Problems related to organization & question sequencing

Front 68

Pretest - Best way to pretest?

Back 68

-Cognitive interviews
-Help researchers understand how respondents interpret & construct answers

Front 69

What is cognitive interviewing?

Back 69

administering draft survey questions to a small number of target individuals while collecting additional verbal information ABOUT the survey responses, which is used to evaluate the quality of the response to help determine whether the question is generating the information that the author intends.

Front 70

What are the two approaches to cognitive interviewing?

Back 70

1. Think-aloud method
---> asks respondents to verbalize their thoughts as they are answering a question.
--->Interviewer reads each question aloud and records what the respondent says and does to comprehend the question

2. Active probing
---> after the interviewer asks a question and the respondent replies, the interviewer probes further in order to understand the response

Front 71

5 common types of probes

Back 71

1. Comprehension/interpretation (what does X mean to you?)
2. Paraphrasing (can you repeat X in your own words?)
3. Confidence judgement (how sure are you that you X?)
4. Recall probe (How do you remember that you X?)
5. General probes (how did you arrive at that answer?)

Front 72

When you SHOULDN'T use a survey

Back 72

-- when questions require recall, especially over long periods of time
-- When individuals are asked for introspection in areas of behavior they don't normally think about
--When individuals are asked to use memory to attribute cause & effect
-- There may be complex, multiple, or interrelated influences on behavior

Front 73

Rules of Conversation

Back 73

1. Maxim of Quality:
---> Be truthful. Don’t say something you think is false, and don’t say anything you can’t back up
2. The Maxim of Quantity
---> Be as informative as is required for the current exchange, and don’t give TMI

3. The Maxim of Relevance
---> Be relevant to the convo

4. The Maxim of Manner
---> Be clear. Avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, and be orderly (don’t be socially awk)

Front 74

Conversation violations in a survey

Back 74

--Ask same question twice
--All info provided is relevant and necessary
--Response options comprehensive and appropriate
--All assertions are true
--See transitions guidelines (figure 13.3 pg 336)

Front 75

Descriptive research -- definition

Back 75

-Provides a look at consumer's attitudes, beliefs, lifestyles, and behaviors at a particular point in time.
EX: survey, personal interviews

Front 76

Experimental research -- definition

Back 76

-Determines CAUSALITY -- the effect of changes in one area on one or more other areas

Front 77

What are the 3 Classical Experiment components?

Back 77

1. Dependent & independent variables
2. Pre-testing & post-testing
3. Experimental & control groups

Front 78

4 basic steps of an experiment?

Back 78

1. Identify what you need to learn
2. Take action (conduct the experiment by manipulating 1+ variables)
3. Observe the effects of those actions on DVs
4. Determine the extent to which the observed effects can be attributed to the IV

Front 79

4 Requirements for causality?

Back 79

1. Events must take place in the proper order. (cause must be before effect)
2. Events must show an explicit relationship. (must see a link between cause & effect)
3. Alternative explanations must be reduced & eliminated.
4. Strength of association. (cause & effect must be verified several times)

Front 80

3 imperatives for establishing causal relationships?

Back 80

1. Covariation (cause & effect must be explicitly established)
2. Temporal precedence (cause comes before effect)
3. Internal validity

Front 81

Internal Validity definition

Back 81

-Extent that one can eliminate alternative explanations for the observed experimental results
-More results supporting the causality, higher internal validity
--- reduced whenever alternative explanations of the results can be found

Front 82

What are the 6 Internal Validity Problems/Threats?

Back 82

--History
--Maturation
--Testing (premeasurement & Interaction)
--Instrumentation
--Selection
--Mortality

Front 83

Internal Validity THREATS: History

Back 83

--any events or influences that have the potential to affect the experimental outcome outside of an experimenter's control

Front 84

Internal Validity THREATS: Maturation

Back 84

Effect is caused by change in participants, NOT in indep. variable
Participants get smarter, older, stronger, etc

Front 85

Internal Validity THREATS: Testing

Back 85

--Pretest affects posttest performance
--EX: a consumer may try to guess more "correctly" the second time
--occur WITHOUT exposure to indep. variable

Interactive Testing Effect: pretest affects perceptions of treatment

Front 86

Internal Validity THREATS: Instrumentation

Back 86

--malfunction or change in the measurement instrument or data recording technique

4 types
--changes in measurement instrument
--changes/noncomparability in recording techniques
--changes in data collection methods
--inconsistent interviewing

Front 87

Internal Validity THREATS: Selection

Back 87

--Whether or not you can randomly assign participants to treatment groups
--There are some cases when you can’t randomly assign treatments, like trying to understand whether smoking causes cancer. You can’t randomly assign people to smoke.
--Random assignment can eliminate this

Front 88

Internal Validity THREATS: Mortality

Back 88

--Respondents drop out of a study

Front 89

Internal Validity THREATS: Researcher Bias

Back 89

--can be eliminated through raised self-awareness and proper planning
--can occur during any part of the experiment

Front 90

Key points of Experimental Design?

Back 90

--info accuracy & cost increase as more controls are built into the experimental design
--Internal Validity threats can be controlled through experimental design
--not necessarily that the researcher wants to control for everything... have to have an appropriate balance between cost & accuracy

Front 91

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Back 91

--not true experiments
--attempt to uncover a causal relationship, but do so poorly because they fail to eliminate threats to IV
--Results are difficult to interpret and only slight improvements over descriptive studies

Front 92

Three types of Quasi-Experimental Designs?

Back 92

-One group post-test only
-One group pretest to post-test
-Two group post-test with control

Front 93

Quasi Exp: One Group Post-Test Only (One-shot)

Back 93

"let's at least do something" design
--Exposes a single group of subjects to the treatment, then measures the DVs for the post test
**NOT randomly selected

WEAKNESSES
--does not control for maturation, selection, mortality
--cannot generalize to pop
--cannot attribute ratings to email campaign (historical threat)

Front 94

Quasi Exp: One Group Pretest to Post-Test

Back 94

"before and after without control"
--pretest is taken before experimental manipulation of Indep. V
--test again after exposure to indep. V

WEAKNESSES:
-NO CONTROL GROUP
-no control for any historical threats to internal validity
-does not eliminate problems associated with initial pretest (introducing bias or sensitivity)
-does not eliminate problems associated with the sample itself (ex: maturation)

Front 95

Quasi Exp: Two Group Post-Test With Control (“static-group”)

Back 95

Random selection, but not random assignment to control & experimental groups

WEAKNESSES
-Because random assignment was not used to form the groups, there is no way to tell any equivalence in pretest scores

Front 96

2 factors that define a TRUE Experiment (vs quasi)?

Back 96

1. have a control group
2. use random assignment to form test and control groups

Front 97

3 components of a true experiment?

Back 97

1. independent variable(s)
2. dependent variable(s)
3. manipulation

Front 98

What are 4 most common types of true experimental designs?

Back 98

1. Post-test only with control
2. Pretest to post-test with control
3. Solomon four-group design
4. Factorial designs

Front 99

What is Post-Test Only with Control (“After only with control”)?

Back 99

*two groups - two measures
--uses two groups of respondents
--compares post-test measures from the treatment and control groups
--CONTROLS FOR: history, maturation, instrumentation, premeasurement, & interaction
--DOES NOT CONTROL FOR: mortality

Front 100

What is Pretest to Post-test With Control?

Back 100

*two groups with four measures
--makes certain that the treatment and control groups are equivalent before the research starts
--Tests both groups before the research starts
--CONTROLS FOR: premeasurement, history, maturation, instrumentation, selection
--DOES NOT CONTROL FOR: mortality

Front 101

What is Solomon Four-Group Design?

Back 101

*Four groups - six measures
--most powerful and most resource-intensive experimental design
--Controls for ALL threats to IV
--combines a pretest to post-test with control design and a post-test only with control design
--rarely applied to advertising and marketing research because of its complexity, cost, & timing
--all four groups get post-test
--two groups get pretest (one control, one treatment)
--two groups do not get pretest (one control, one treatment)

Front 102

What is a variable with different levels?

Back 102

Changing the quantity of the independent variable
EX: length of videos watched, number of emails received

Front 103

What is a variable with different aspects?

Back 103

Changing the characteristics of the independent variable
EX: male vs female spokesperson, blog with ads in different spots

Front 104

2 factors in selecting an experimental design?

Back 104

--based on what information is needed
--based on specific threats to IV that need to be controlled

Front 105

What is a Factorial Design?

Back 105

TWO IVS. A DV. AND 4 CONDITIONS.
-Simultaneously measures the effect of two+ IVs -- each with different levels -- on one or more DVs
-Diagrammed as squares or cubes

Front 106

What are the 2 components of a factorial design?

Back 106

1. Main effects
--seperate influence of each independent variable on the DVs

2. Interactions
--Combinations of main effects on the DVs
--simultaneous effect of two+ IVs is different from the sum of their independent effects.
(EX: people don't react to a female spokesperson or a funny spokesperson, but they react to a funny female spokesperson)

Front 107

What is PsychData?

Back 107

a company with the capability to conduct online experiments with random assignment.

Front 108

3 circumstances that improve internal validity

Back 108

1. Using strong predictions in research.
2. When a change in the cause is followed by large change in effect.
3. When the effect reverses a prevailing tendency or condition (as opposed to a change that simply increases more of the same)
(EX: an ad that reverses negative opinions vs an ad that improves positive opinions)

Front 109

How to make a strong prediction?

Back 109

-Include directionality (increase or decrease "X will increase/decrease")
-address nature of the change ("X will improve Y in the areas of ___________")

Front 110

What are 3 types of external validity?

Back 110

1. Population-related
2. Measurement-related
3. Setting-related

Front 111

What is Population-related external validity?

Back 111

-increases when proper sampling procedures are used to select individuals from the population of interest and assign them to groups

Front 112

What is Measurement-related external validity?

Back 112

-increases when steps are taken to ensure that measures used to collect the data are collecting the right data

Front 113

What is Setting-related external validity?

Back 113

--Laboratory study will have high internal validity but low external validity
--Field experiments have high external validity but low internal validity

Front 114

What is Objective Phenomena?

Back 114

Directly observable behavior (EX how much toothpaste someone uses)

Front 115

What is Subjective Phenomena?

Back 115

Can only be known by respondents
-Attitudes (likes/dislikes)
-Beliefs (linking an object to an attribute)
-Emotions
-Behavioral Intentions (plans to behave in particular ways)

Front 116

What are the various attitude definitions?

Back 116

Latin root: aptus (fitness, readiness)
--Predisposition to respond to something
--Physical stance or position (ex: lion has angry/hostile attitude)
--Overt expression of strong emotions
--General evaluations people hold in regard to themselves, other people, objects, & issues
--Short or long term tendencies or dispositions

Front 117

What are 3 characteristics of evaluations (attitudes)?

Back 117

--Overall evaluation that can range from positive to negative
--Strong attitudes are resistant to change
--Usually there is some A-B consistency

Front 118

3 Categories of responding? (attitudes)

Back 118

-Feelings
---> goodwill, positive affect toward object
-Thoughts
---> favorable beliefs about object
-Behaviors
---> recommending to others, purchasing

Front 119

What is the attitude structure? What are the 3 main dimensions?

Back 119

--Affect, behavioral, & cognitive dimensions
Symbol --> attitude --> affect (emotion), behavior(actions), cognition(perceptual responses)

*enduring, central attitudes involve all three components

Front 120

EXAMPLE: How would you apply these 3 dimensions to a snake?

Back 120

Affectively: gross looking
Cognitive: they will bite you
Behavioral: go out of your way to avoid them

Front 121

What makes an attitude primarily affective vs primarily cognitive?

Back 121

Primarily affective:
-something you feel happy about, but know is bad for you, like chocolate
EX: "I love ice cream with hot fudge!"

-Primarily cognitive:
EX: getting a toyota because you know toyotas are most reliable car, but you don't feel positively towards them

Front 122

What is the intra-attitudinal structure? (& 3 components)

Back 122

-Relationship among different components of attitude

-Beliefs: Attitude= sum (Expectancy * Value)

-Expectancy: the probability that the attitude object is characterized by some attribute
-Value: The evaluation attached to that attribute

Front 123

What is Heider's balance theory?

Back 123

3 components: perceiver(you), other person (celeb?) & attitude object (product)

If product = positive, then balanced
If product = negative, no balance & change is imminent

EXAMPLE: your feelings about celeb are positive, in commercial, celeb is talking about X product, and it makes you think "I like celeb, celeb likes X, therefore I like X" = BALANCE

Front 124

4 ways of measuring attitudes?

Back 124

1. Performance on objective tasks
2. Physiological reactions
3. Self-report
4. Partially structured measures

Front 125

How do we measure attitudes? (self-reporting)

Back 125

Implicit (indirect)
Explicit (direct)

Front 126

What are explicit measures of attitude?

Back 126

Assessing stored evaluative feelings & info about an object
*self-report

Front 127

What are implicit measures of attitude?

Back 127

assess evaluative tendencies, but do not require intentional recollection of stored evaluative information

Front 128

Characteristics of self-report in attitudes?

Back 128

*explicit measure

3 types:
--Geographic ratings,
--itemized ratings (Likert, Thurstone, Semantic Differential, Comparative Ratings)
--Comparative ratings

Front 129

Potential problems with self-reporting?

Back 129

-Social desirability, evaluation apprehension
*people must be both willing & able to report their true attitudes

Front 130

What are graphic ratings?

Back 130

-Bipolar scale
-Indicate ratings by placing a check at the appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme attitude to the other
-Good for online, not for paper & pencil

Front 131

What are itemized ratings?

Back 131

--"multiple choice"
--Respondents select from a limited number of categories (often 5-9)

Two types
----- Summed ratings
-----Comparative ratings

Front 132

What are Thurstone scales?

Back 132

-antiquated
--Generate a large number of statements
--Subjects sort the statements into piles numbered from 1-11 (most unfavorable - most favorable)
--Average is calculated for each statement
--takes a long time to develop scale
--great way to measure attitudes, time consuming to develop

Front 133

What are Likert scales?

Back 133

--very time consuming
--widely used
--Gather a large number of statements on the topic, have subjects indicate their evaluations by means of a five-point numerical scale (strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree)

--Item analysis is used to select items:
------Calculate total score (sum if all the items)
------How much people agree on a scale

Front 134

What is Semantic Differential?

Back 134

--Scale of two polar opposite adjectives... ex, good ---- evil

--3 dominant dimensions:
-evaluation (good-bad)
-potency(strong-weak)
-activity(active-passive

--Others include: stability, tautness, novelty, receptivity

Front 135

What are the 2 types of disguised self reports?

Back 135

*implicit measure
1. Word-fragment, word-stem completion
--EX: C_K_ (do you fill it with "coke" or with "cake"?)

2. Category accessibility
--Asks respondents to explain behavior
EX: someone went outside even though it was freezing... explanation by a smoker may be that they went out to smoke

Front 136

What are projective techniques?

Back 136

--unstructured measures that ask respondents t react to a deliberately ambiguous stimulus

Front 137

What are the 2 types of projective techniques?

Back 137

1. Thematic apperception test
----> respondents presented with image, asked to "write a story" about the image.
EX: shopping list. Asked to describe woman who made the list... instant coffee = lazy

2. Sentence completion tasks
-respondents presented with sentence beginning & are asked to finish it

Front 138

What are other indirect measures of attitude?

Back 138

-behavioral indicies
-physiological measures (EEG, pupil repsonse)
-contemporary implicit measures
----> priming
----> implicit association test

Front 139

What is the Implicit Assciation Test?

Back 139

•Respondents asked to categorize target words over the course of a series of trials.
•Initial trials involve only two categories, critical trials involve four categories.
EXAMPLE from class: hitting knees about stuff

Front 140

What are the 4 functions of attitudes?

Back 140

-instrumental (attitudes exist to seek out rewards & avoid punishments)
-knowledge (attitudes don't just change)
-value-expressive (attitudes tell people who you are)
-ego-defensive (attitudes protect us from unflattering truths. ex homophobics)

Front 141

What are the 4 origins of attitude?

Back 141

1. Mere exposure (see it more = like it more)
2. Classical conditioning (association - pavlov)
3. Operant conditioning (reinforcement)
4. Socialization

Front 142

What did the LaPiere study find?

Back 142

*Attitudes are not predictive of single behaviors, but predictive of aggregate behavior over time
--Strong, central
--Specific – action, target, context, time
--Direct experience
--Accessible – response time
--Minimizing social influences
--Person variables – self monitoring

Front 143

What are the 2 theories behind attitude & behavior?

Back 143

1. Theory of reasoned action (attitudes drive behavior)
2. Cognitive dissonance (behavior drives attitudes)

Front 144

What is the Theory of Reasoned action?

Back 144

---Attitudes and subjective norms predict intentions, intentions predict behavior
--DO NOT DIRECTLY PREDICT BEHAVIOR -- only behavioral intentions
--subjective norms about behvaior also predict intentions. (eg what your friends think)
--Perceived control: whether or not you think you can do it (EX flying)

Front 145

What is the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance?

Back 145

•People seek cognitive consistency
•Cognitive inconsistency causes discomfort
•Will change cognition to regain consistency
•Counterattitudinal behavior
oEX: writing a paper of your own free will – increases your agreeance with the topic
•Counterattitudinal advocacy
•Decision justification
oIf you choose between two equally attractive options, you may experience cognitive dissonance
•Effort justification

Front 146

Who says what to whom with what effect?
(source, message, receiver)

Back 146

-source factors:
-----> credible, attractiveness, similarity, power(more persuasive if you are afraid of their power), expertise
-message factors:
------> comprehensibility, number of arguments, strength, repetition, fear appeals, one vs. two-sided
-receiver factors:
------> intelligence, self-esteem, sex, personality variables

Front 147

What's with persuasion and attitude change?

Back 147

· Relatively enduring, but rarely permanent
(compare attitudes you hold today with those you held years ago...)
· Learn attitudes
· Act in ways that run counter to old
· Others persuade us

Front 148

5 stages of processing info?

Back 148

1. attention
2. comprehension
3. learning
4. acceptance
5. retetion