Addiction

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Vink et al

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1572 Dutch twin pairs. Individual differences accounted for: 44% genetics and 56% environment.

Nicotine dependence heritability 75%

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Buka

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Mothers who heavily smoked during pregnancy had children more vulnerable to addiction.

Wouldn't increase likelihood of smoking, but if they do, higher chance of addiction.

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Xian

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Failed attempts of smoking accounted for 54% by genetics.

Unsuccessfully found a specific gene.

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Brandon

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Behavior escalates to addiction due to one's expectation on cost/benefit of the behavior.

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Kassel

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Adolescents reported smoking initiation at times of low mood with the expectation that it would decrease the low mood.

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Brandon

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As an addiction develops, it is effected by unconscious expectancies used in automatic processing. Explains the loss of control experienced and difficulties quitting.

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Tate et al

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Told a group of smokers that they would have no negative experiences in a period of abstinence. Lead to less somatic and psychological experiences than a control group that were not informed.

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DeVries & Backbiar

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Smoker's perceptions of the pros and cons of smoking and not smoking will effect smoking.

If percieved to be beneficial, more likely to relapse.

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Hunt

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Biological therapies such as NRT unsuccessful in adolescents as it didn't chance thought processes.

Moolchan (good when paired with CBT)

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Diblaso and Brendo

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Peer group is the primary influence for adolescents.

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Karcher and Finn

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In youths, if:

-Parents smoke = 1.88x more likely.

-Siblings smoke = 2.6x more likely.

-Close friends smoke = 8x more likely.

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Franklin et al

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Despite neural effects of nicotine, the association was rapidly conditions so a stimulus of smoking activates the same area of the brain which makes cessation harder.

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Refusal self-efficacy

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Individuals belief as to whether or not they can succeed.

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Lawrence and Rubinson

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Adults who smoke more frequently, have less confidence on abstinence which makes relapse more likely.

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Shah et al

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Evidence in twin men of genetic transmission to gambling.

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Black et al

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First degree relatives of pathological gamblers are more likely to also sufffer than a distant relative.

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Paris et al

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Measured gambler's cortisol levels before and after watching a video of preffered gambling method, and a video of a neutral stimuli. Recreational had increased salivary cortisol levels to both but pathological had nothing.

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Gelkoff's self medicated model

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Different forms of pathological behaviour to treat psychological symptoms that are suffered.

May not actually help but irrational thought processes cause it to be judged as beneficial.

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Li et al

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Pathological gamblers who gambled to escape reality were more likely to also have substance abuse problems than those who gambled for pleasure.

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Oei & Gordon

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Cognitive distortions cause the belief that random events can be predicted by previous attempts.

An exaggerated self-confidence in beating the system.

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DelFabbo & Winefield

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75% of game related thoughts were irrational and encouraged further risk taking.

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Just world hypthesis

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String of losses doesn't act as a dis-incentive to continue. They believe that due to the abundance of losses, they deserve to win.

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Blanco et al

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Recall bias; gamblers have a tendency to remember and overestimate the wins whilst forgetting and underestimating the losses.

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DelFabbo and Winefield

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Gamblers don't think rationally which explains the repetitive behavior despite the imbalance of winning to loosing.

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Lambos

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Gamblers who received positive reinforcement from peers and family gambled more and were more likely to gamble into the future.

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Gunasekera

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Reviewed 87 of the most popular films between 1985 and 2005 for their portrayal of sex and drug use.

When exhibiting drugs, it showed the positive effects but ignored the negatives.

1 in 4 was free from negative health behaviors.

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Boyd

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Disagreed with Gunasekera. Films so consider the negative effects such as physical deformation, prostitution, rape, theft, murder and moral decline.

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Sargent and Hanewinked

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Tested adolescents' influence of the media on initiation.

4384, 11-15 year old were used, and then resurveyed a year later on smoking behavior.

They found that those who didn't smoke but were exposed to a movie with smoking was a significant predictor as to whether they start to smoke.

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Byrne

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Films create our stereotypical view of what it is like to be an addict.

E.G. Societies opinion on ECT due to films such as "One flew over the cuckoo's nest".

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Ajzen and Fishbein

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Proposed the theory of planned behaviour.

According to the theory, a decision to engage in a behaviour can be directly predicted by their intention to engage with it.

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Intention

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Function of three factors:

-Behavioral attitude. (Personal views).

-Subjective norms. (Social influence).

-Perceived behavioral control. (Assumption to act on the intention of the behavior itself.)

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Slater et al

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USA Drugs campaign: effective due to the focus on effects not risks, as youths aren't concerned with risks.

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Wilson and Kolander

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Most smokers are in a peer group which smoke, causing them to think it is normal.

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Lang and Marlott

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Aversion therapy effective but requires persistent motivation.

Long term; more effective if paired with therapy to address the reason why the addiction initially started.

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Fenny

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CBT is reasonably effective when paired with medication. This enables the withdrawal symptoms to be controlled so that the psychological wellbeing and removal of addiction can be focused on.

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Landoucer

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Randomly allocated 66 pathological gamblers to cognitive group therapy or a waiting list. 86% who completed no longer met DSM criteria, also had greater self-efficacy and a better perception of control.

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Parkes

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5 GP practices in London.

Effective when patients were given true lung age. GP's in a good position to give advice on how to prevent further deterioration.

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Pekurinen

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Reducing advertisement reduces the behavior. Since cigarette advertisement was banned in 2002, sales dropped by 7% and continues to do so by 2% annually.

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Gossop and Eysenck

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200 addicts in treatment centers, all polydrug users. Personalities were assessed using his questionnaire and found a significant associated between neuroticism and psychoticism.

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Bloszynski

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Replicated with both addicts and gamblers, and compared with non-addicts.

Males; significant associated with extroversion and psychoticism.

Females; significant association with psychoticism.

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Dalley

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More impulsive rats had fewer dopamine receptors (associated with reward and pleasure). Later, these rats were more likely to self-administer cocaine.

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Brown et al

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Influence of peers wane in later adolescents, but role of closer friends/partners become more important and influential.

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Shram

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Adolescents more sensitive to the positive effects of nicotine and are less likely to suffer negative consequences.

Also has a greater effect on neural reward pathways.

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Swiss Health Survey

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47% of men above the age of 75 drank daily but only 6% of 25-34 year olds.

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Sussman and Ames

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Peer drug use was the best predictor for future drug use in others.

Also emphasized the importance of family members; if they use, and what their attitudes are.

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Eiser

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Smokers befriend smokers and non-smokers befriend non-smokers.

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Mealistair

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Transition to an increase in smoking is linked to peer encouragement and approval as well as belief that it increase popularity.

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Abrahms and Hogg

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Social identity theory; individuals adopt social norms that are central to the social identity of the group.

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Morgan et al

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Housed monkeys individually for 1.5 years, then placed in social cages of four monkeys. Being low in social dominance is stressful and these monkeys had less dopamine levels.

When cocaine became available, lower dominance monkeys were hooked due to boost in dominance.

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Clack and Blendy

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Childhood abuse related to later stress-related psychiatric disorders such as depression and anxiety which may lead to a chemical dependency.