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44 Cards in this Set

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The Netherlands and England

It was the netherlands more than anything that caused war with Spain.


Elizabeth expelled the sea beggars from English ports (March 1572); these sea beggars (dutch pirates licensed by William of Orange) landed in Brielle and their occupation sparked wide scale revolt against the Duke of Alba, against what the rebels saw as spanish atrocities - ‘Spanish fury’. Marshall said it was a 'gesture of conciliation towards Philip'


In Nov. 1576 Spanish troops plundered antwerp


Led to the ‘Pacification of Ghent’ Nov 1576- called for exile of foreign troops and restoration of autonomy

English intervention with the rebels

Elizabeth ignored her advisors’ request to directly intervene, instead acting as a mediator and sending covert help; allowing english soldiers to be recruited by rebels and preventing the spanish recruiting English soldiers.


This policy succeeded while Spanish adopted a soft line.


Pacification of Ghent coincided with Liz’s foreign policy aims and with Spanish troops beginning to vacate the Netherlands, it appeared she had been successful. This failed when the rebellion, and troops, returned a year later.

Spanish military offensive

This made it clear to Liz that there were only 2 outcomes - Spanish success or French intervention - Elizabeth preferred the first.


It seemed likely the French would aid the Spanish governor Don John so to boost the rebels Liz said she would give the rebels a loan of £100k and military support if Don JOhn (Dutch Governor-General) didnt accept settlement terms. She told Phillip to accept the Pac. of Ghent or she would support the rebels.


She didn’t back this up but compromised and sent a merc army. Rebels were later divided on religious grounds causing issues.

Situation deteriorates

Doran said Elizabeth’s policy was in ‘disarray’ as she had alienated the Spanish and done nothing to help the rebellion. She contemplated marriage to the Duke of Anjou, who was looking to invade, just to save the situatio.


Spanish power had increased after the annexation of portugal in ’80 while dutch divisions had only got worse with the Catholic Union of Arras and protestant Union of Utrecht. This led to Parma’s reconquest of the north after he was made Governor General in 1578 and Liz’s anti-spanish stance.

Failure of the rebellion

Henry III of France feared Spain and refused to join an anti-Spanish alliance (after Anjou marriage failed) while Anjou’s campaign failed and Parma’s reconquest gained huge momentum until only Holland and Zeeland remained.


William of Orange also died in 84 - rebels were doomed to fail and once the Dutch were defeated Spain would naturally turn to England.

Treaty of Joinville

Treaty of Joinville signed in secret in ’84 meant Phillip agreed to finance the Catholic League. It was a Catholic alliance against Protestant forces, notably Elizabeth I of England, in response to the protestant Henry III being the successor. It also meant the Guise family led the Catholic League so Phillip no longer had any political reasons not to support Mary, QoS.


To counter this, Liz was forced into an alliance and agreed to pay for 7400 troops under Norris and given the ports of Brielle and Vlissingen in the Treaty of Nonsuch 1585

Leicester’s forces

In the end Liz sent dudley with troops to the netherlands in December 85


Quickly the positive attitude disappeared bc of


  • Troops were poorly paid and so were unruly, alienating the dutch
  • Dutch felt betrayed when 2 officers deserted and joined Parma
  • English commanders quarrelled
  • Leicester quarrelled with the dutch over how to run Netherlands + didn’t get Dutch culture
  • Leicester organised a coup d’etat in Sept. 1587 which convinced the Dutch Liz wanted control and when she secretly began negotiating with Parma she alienated them completely


Returned to england and resigned his command in Jan 1588.

France -


Treaty of Blois

1572 -


ToB made a significant improvement to Anglo-French relations but this was all but destroyed by the St Barts day massacre but Liz had to persist with as Spain forced england to be friendly with France




Liz basic approach to the French had 2 benefits: A defensive understanding would minimise the spanish threat along with preventing a French takeover of the Netherlands.




Guy called it an attempt to reconcile conflicting interests at minimal cost and she renewed the ToB after the accession of Hnery III

Marriage with Anjou

Most of the Privy council feared it while Anjou wa somewhat unsavoury character.


Sermons were preached against it while Stubbs published ‘The discovery of a gaping gulf wherein England is like to be swallowed by another French marriage’ in 1579 which led to its suppression and Stubbs losing his right hand.


IT was called off and did nothing to alter increasing spanish power.

Origins of war with spain

Phillip was resentful of Liz’s reaction to his taking of Portugal while Liz’s assisting of the Portugal pretender Don Antonio made things worse, especially her support for his attack on the Azores in 81. The original English invasion plans were drawn up by Spain after these 2 events.




Liz had also been offended by Spain’s involvement in plots against her and was under pressure from the council and public to defend against Spain.

Threat of Invasion

Relations worsened in ’85 when Philip ordered the seizure of all English ships and goods in Soanish ports along with Liz’s pursuit of an alliance with the Sharif of Fez. Drake’s pirate attacks also didn’t help and this led to the Armada.


Adams said war broke out because ‘ Elizabeth and Philip both lost their nerve'

The Armada

Preparation took over 2 years while Parma had serious doubts. Philip ignored these and this was , according to Tilbrook, his greatest mistake.


Sailed from Spain in July 1588


It was defeated because:


  • The whole strategy had been challenged
  • Death of Marquis of Santa Cruz robbed the armada of its leader and his replacement, Duke of Medina Sidonia, lacked exp.
  • English benefited from the decision to send fire ships into the Spanish vessels with winds and tides maximising disruption.
  • English were skilful enough to maximise disruption by attacking Medina directly. Winds also meant the armada was split up and half had to return to Spain via the hazardous route from North sea round

Influence of Englands finance

Trade-


In 1558, the London-Antwerp Cloth trade was 75% of all export.


New markets, like the Merchant Adventurers in Germany, were underdeveloped


Cost of War -


Elizabeth's prewar income (£300k annually) covered expenditure and allowed her to save but she struggled to meet cost of war and had to use dubious measures;


sale of crown lands and monopolies


Taxation


Use of unpaid officials



Historians on Liz's success at war

Doran - 'She was only too well aware, however of the limitations of her purse'


'She sought, above all, national security'




MacCaffey -


'Military expertise which Elizabeth necessarily lacked'


'In these years the Queen's deficiencies as a ruler were more apparent'




Haigh -


Liz could not 'command soldiers'


'The Queen wanted war on the cheap, and refused to recognise that there was no such thing'

Section 8 -


Quality of government


Ageing government

Last 15yrs of her reign were an ‘anti-climax’


Death of Earl of Leicester in Sept. 1588 was a personal blow while Sadler (87) Mildmay (89) Walsingham(90) and Hatton (91) all died.


As Liz used a small cohesive government this was a serious impact and by 97 the council only had 11 members - The queen didn’t help -didnt appoint successors.




Cecil Sr became pre-eminent while his son took on a huge workload. Liz tended to appoint middle-aged sons of former councillors which meant there was an absence of senior councillors.This annoyed Earl of Essex (quick temper), stepson of Earl of Leicester




Cecil Jr given more roles by his dad to continue regenum cecilianum.

Historiography on her late council

Hammer - ‘no longer included the most illustrious and important families’




Williams - 1597-8 parliament had ‘an impressive record of achievement'


After the Golden speech ‘the wounds were healed'

Taxation

Quality of government suffered from declining yield from taxation. No attempt to revise Marian book ofrates caused decline in customs revenue.


Lots of taxation systems were out of date. Equally while financial administration was old-fashioned - tight controlled - it continued to work.


Only limited attempts to fund war through borrowing.

Relations between crown and parliament

Reasonably cordial except when royal prerogative was breached - Queen would lose temper


The fairly productive relationship broke down with the catalyst of the monopolies, contributing to the decline in her authority. Equally war strained relations.




RObert Cecil lacked skill as parliamentary manager w/ less resources than his father had had.




Pulled back ‘from the brink’ in 1601 in the ‘Golden Speech'

Factional rivalry

’almost served to destroy the effectiveness of government’


Reflected queens own declining power as when confronted with problem of Essex she was fearful of giving him too much power but also unable to destroy his influence. Essex bounced back from many issues but brought about his ow downfall bu his inability to play by the rules of the political game and his paranoia about Cecil Jr. (Which was justified but clouded his judgement)

Political patronage

Liz’s gov lacked paid officials and a civil service so gov was dependent on the exploitation of the mystique of monarchy and the ability to reward the governing classes for ensuring the system continued to operate.




Nature of gov had potential for both profit and political advancement w/ lots of competition. For most of reign, major access to patronage was through Cecil Sr but he did not abuse this position and this was why Liz trusted him to appoint effective people but by the 90s this system was becoming unbalanced because -



  • Many other sources had died
  • Burghley passed more of role to his son who was less focused on balance (by not abusing)
  • Main victim was Essex who was frozen out

Antagonism between Cecil and Essex

Increased when Cecil had to make an inventory of plunder after the Cadiz capture in 96 (led by Essex) and some of Essex\s followers became conscious of the fact Cecil was clearly winning.


Essex idnt help himself ‘man of nature not to be ruled’ - Francis Bacon - regarded with suspicion by Queen. Bacon’s solution as that Essex should make himself useful at court, he was not suitable for this and his failure was further shown but his inability to win offices for his followers after the death of Lord Cobham in 1597


This was worsened by his 97 Azores expeditionwhere he abandoned crowns objectives in pursuit of financial gain and left court in a huff when Liz called him up on it.

Further deterioration of Esssex

  • Essexs advocating of continued war vs Cecil’s desire fore peace along with the queens need for finance.
  • Queen was suspicious of Essex’s attempts to control the court.
  • Essex turned his back on the queen after she didn’t follow his advice over th post of Lord Deputy of Ireland (a post none wanted) where she slapped him and he momentarily went to his sword and had to be retained. Essex withdrew from court in rage and refused to apologise. 1598
  • Took 3 months to apologise and sought to reintegrate by being appointed Lord Lieutenant in Ireland which failed dismally 1599

Parliament sours

While parliament were euphoric after defeat of the Armada and happy rto grant a subsidy this began to fade and as of 93 many of Lizs traditional tactics were failing so the crown ensured they had a speaker they could trust, Sir Coke was elected in 93.




Further soured by the imprisonment of Wentworth over the issue of the royal prerogative (Successor) - AGR Smith saw it as a ‘crude reminder of the realities of royal power at a time when the queens temper may have been becoming less equable'

Monopolies issue

1597 was a specially bad year for parliament relations with a poor harvest, high food prices leading to a food crisis with nationwide starvation. This meant more taxation due to declining income and protests occurred over the selling of patents of monopoly (exclusive right to control the sale of certain products).




Faced with significant criticism crown was forced into promising to scrutinise existing patents and not use prerogative to prevent the suing of patentees in common law courts (limited the prerogative). This quietened the debate but it resurfaced in 1601 when MP mood had worsened and was the ‘most fractious’ parliament of Lizs reign partly due to mismanagement.




For the first time MPs got their way and secured control of proceedings - critics of the crown were well organised and produced evidence of how patents were bad and the crown had to compromise with the revoking of monopolies on salt and authorised complainants to seek redress against patentees.

Catholicism after the Armada

Catholic threat was perceived as less dangerous and was divided over the relationship between catholicism and Liz’s state which made catholicism response to protestantism less effective.




Often said the defeat of armada eased penal laws against catholicism but this was entirely the opposite over fear of a second one. Walsingham kept sponsoring anti-catholic agents while the CotNorth pursued anti-Catholic activity under Hastings up till his death in 95.




53 priests and 35 lay persons were executed between 90 and 03.

Financial response to cathlicism

Doran suggested that by 86 recusancy couldn’t be eliminated and as such catholicism had to be used as a source of income. Doran said catholicism wanted to push catholics into conformity without reducing them to poverty but at a local level men were often less subtle against the catholic evil and some wealthy catholic landowners had heavy recusancy fines.




Success was patchy though - in 92 800 lancashire catholics were presented but only 11 were fined. Equally many catholic households conformed occasionally as well though.

Puritanism

Puritanism was further weakened with the ‘Martin Marprelate’ tracts in 88 and 89 a last deserate act by puritan opponents of the elizabethan church to reassert themselves when oppositions puritanism was out of fashion. Collins said they combined wit, savagery and a colloquial style that ensured a wide readership.




Presbyterianism had disappeared meaning that puritans were often contained and there were few divisions in the church. Equally puritanism remained divisive as some puritan attitudes were still able to poison community relations.

Chapter 9 -


Continuing war with Spain

Liz and her ministers didnt expect war to drag on for 16 years past Phil and Liz's deaths.




Her war aims were modest, national security, and unlike some of her councils she didnt want to destroy the Spanish empire instead wanting an autonomous Netherlands to benefit English.




Also seemed to many at court as a religious survival war against the Catgoilics, a view shared up to a point by Lord burghley who saw Phillips war as one of conquest.

Conflict over how to fight

  1. 'Minimalist view' concentrated limited resources in Netherlands to deal with Parma.
  2. Others like Hawkins favoured naval campaign, but knew Dutch campaign was necessary

The latter argued land war was expensive and difficult but English were successful in small-scale naval attacks between 85-87. Queen wasnt pursuaded by Hawkins suggestion following the Armada for a naval blockade of key spanish ports but did agree to an expedition in 89 to Portugal. It was a complete failure - Liz blamed it on commanders putting profit first. MacCaffrey said it showed the 'tissue of constaints and contradictions' which limited effective English warfare. No coherent objectives, it was overambitious, and underresourced.




Naval impact on Spanish war effort is debatable but forced Spain to spread resources limiting pressure on Dutch and English



Attacks on the Spanish land

From 1595, England had 3 attacks -


1595 - First attack in 10 years on Spanish colonial interests in the West Indies - main interest was Panama due to its use as a treasure port, + Drake's belief it was their weakest point. COmplete failure and Drake + Hawkins died




1596 - Led by Raleigh and Howard. Took Cadiz and sunk/stole 4 galleons but were unab le to build on this; didnt move on Lisbon. Cadiz was simply looted and left - most investors made a loss and no objectives were realised. Also provokeed Phillip into ordering a 2nd fleet invasion of England. Wind stpped it succeeding




MacCaffrey said it demonstrated a muddle of contradictory pruposes'



Protecting Ireland

To prevent Spanish utilising situation in Ireland, Essex set sal to attack Ferrol in 97 but was driven back by winds (was doomed to fail anyway) and instead set sail for booty in Azores (wealth over objectives) and only wind prevented SPanish from landing in Ireland (which had slipped past Essex)




PAst this naval activity was limited, mainly preventing SPanish landings in Irland

War in France

Whenh Henry of Navarre was pronounced in 1589 much of France was controlled by Catholic League and Liz reluctantly sent 3600 troops under Willoughby and were used by Henry to assert his control over N. France and by end of 89 HEnry was in a much stronger position and Parma had to send troops to the Battle of Ivry (90) which prevented Paris from falling into Henry's hands. This reduced pressure on Dutch.




By end of 1590 Henry once again needed Enlgish support due to fear of an invasion by Duke of Parma with 2 forces sent out under Norris and Williams respectively. This soured relationships between Liz and Henry though, Burghley said Henry (and others) had to 'ease themselves with throwing their burdens upon her'

War in Netherlands

Main area was still Netherlands and with Leicesters disgrace and death relations between rebels and crown improved markedly w/ morale boosted by Willoughby's victory at Bergen-op-Zoom (1588). Willougby was later replaced by Vere and commanded troops in france. Vere was very capable and had a good relationship w/ Dutch leader Maurice.




Spanish deteriorated so bad that Phillip was preparing to dismiss Parma (who died in 92 before he could). By 94 Northern Netherlands were all controlled by Dutch and North became independent while S. were given more autonomy.

Ireland

9 years war (1594-1603) 3rd revolt centred in Ulster under Earl of Tyrone (title given by Liz) was most difficult and expensive to suppress due to Spanish trying to take advantage of it. At first Liz sought a truce but as it expanded and Spain made its intentions clear (tried to get Irish in Armada) and English forces under Bagenmal were routed at Battle of Yellow Ford in 98, an independent Catholic Ireland was a genuine risk.

Ireland under Essex

Essex sent as Lord Lieutenant in 99 and was an error as he defied Queens orders organsised a truce and when it expired Tyrone moved south. Essex was a weak leader and his replacement Mountjoy (w/ Carew) made significant progress, taking Cork, Munster and pushin Tyrone back into Ulster.




Spanish landed in 1601 'saving' Earl of tyrone but Spanish were defeated and Tyrone negotiated a peace in 1603 after Liz died.

Social and Economic problems

The mid 1590s witnessed 'Turmoil created by rising prices, bad harvests and outbreaks' (Guy)




Worst years were 1596-97 with real wages at their lowest levels since the Black death with substantial starvation.


Slack suggested the national death rate between 96-8 was about 6%.


Vagrancy at high levels w/ food riots in London Kent and Haampshire. Government fearful of a repeat of Ketts revellion.




Heavy handed response to Oxfordshire 'rising' pathetic 4 man scheme) with torture and execution shows gov. fear.



Act for the relief of the poor in 1598 + 1601 wasnt innovative but drew experience to produce coherent framework for poor relief at parish level - worked effectrively and remained in force for over 2 centuries and while by 98 the immediate crisis was over it limited any further issues.

Essex's downfall

In 99 Esssex deserted his post and burst into the Queen's bedchamber. Was charged in Star Chamber and suspended from everything + kept under house arrest. He may have recovered but all his actions reeked of treason such as his dedication to Haywards book about HEnry IV focused on the otherthrow of Richard II.




Absurd charges leveled afainst him of conspiracy with thee Pope etc. and while Cecil didnt press charges his financial situation left him seriously weak (debt of16k) w/ Liz not renewing his sweet wine monopoly. Many of his followers, like BAcon and Knollys, had left him.

Essex rebellion

Feb 1601 - Revised plan was a 'fiasco' w/ 300 of his supporters gathered at Essex house and Liz demanded he dismiss his followers and come to court. Essex held the councillor messengers prhostage and he received little support from the city. After returning from the city he learnt the councillors had been released and Cecil had whitehall fortified (Essex's main target).




Essex had little choice but to surrender and him and his 5 associates were executed (Feb. 1601) though his most socially prominent suppoorts, Earls of SOuthampton and Rutland were spared.




Penry Williams sad his supporteres had 'lost touch with political reality and had disastrously exaggerated Essex's popular support'.

How unified were politics and religion in 1603?

Broad political unity achieved with all english people, bar a mijnority of militant catholics, loyal. No direct challenge to Liz since 69 and the 'political nation' of couriters and politicans were intensely loyal(bar remaining Essex support but these had been marginalised).




Queen had arguably reigned too long and seemed out of touch with the younger generation and her rep had been tarnished by events in the last years of her reign.




Religious situation was favourable w/ division in catholicism; P. Williams argued 'her church and its liturgy becme the accustomed religion of the majority'. Puritanism had faded and assimilated while separatism had gvirtually disappeared.




FInancial position was weak and the CHurch had been weakened by financial demands of it - were problems for James but it was a broadly stable realm.

Historiography on Essex

Loades -


'He accepted his success with the Queen as a kind of birth-right.'


'if she had not been so foolish as to encourage him, his Icarus-like career need never have happened.' Liz caused essex rebellion




Guy -


'phase of unusually intense factionalism, self-interest and instability'.

Historiography on later years

Haigh -


'her reign had been 30 years of illusion, followed by 15 years of disillusion'.


'politically bankrupt'




Black -


'declining years did not bring with them any decay of her intellectual faculty'.

Historiography on Foreign policy

Werenham - Policy in the Netherlands was a failure


Too afraid of France - unreasonable fear


Doran - she achieved her aims

Historiography on Trade/Finance

MacCaffery -


'major deficiencies in the crown's fiscal administration went unchecked or grew worse.'




Palliser -


England remained 'relatively backward' in its exploitation of trade

Historiography on Parliament

Neale -


the Commons 'reached maturity' in the Elizabethan era.




Elton -


'all talk of the rise of Parliament as an institution.., into political prominence is balderdash'