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238 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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STIMULUS |
any change in the environment that causes a responce |
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RESPONSE |
a change in behaviour or physiology due to a change in the environment |
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HOMEOSTASIS |
maintanance of the internal environment in a constant state despite external changes |
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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK |
process that brings about the reversal of a change in conditions. It ensures optimum steady state can be maintained. The internal condition is brought back to optimum after any change it is essential for homeostasis |
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POSITIVE FEEDBACK |
the process that increases the change detected by the receptor |
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ECTOTHERM |
also known as cold blooded organism that relies on external sources of heat to regulate body temp e.g reptiles |
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ENDOTHERMS |
also known as warm blooded organism hat can use internal sources for heat such as heat generated from metabolic processes in the liver to maintain body temp e.g Humans |
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HYPOTHALAMUS |
part of brain that monitors the body temperatures of endotherms |
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THERMOREGULATORY SYSTEM |
part of hypothalamus that detects change in internal core temperatures. |
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POLARISED |
the membrane has a potential difference across it. this is resting potential |
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DEPOLARISED |
loss of polarisation when sodium ions flood into the cell making the inside less negative |
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GENERATOR POTENTIAL |
small depolarisaon caused by sodium ions entering |
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ACTION POTENTIAL |
achieved when membrane is depolarised to value around 40mV. It is all or nothing response and the depolarisation reaches the threshold potential |
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RESTING POTENTIAL |
potential difference across the membrane while neurone is at rest. It is around -60mv inside compared to outside. |
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VOLTAGE GATED CHANNELS |
they open if there is a change in potential difference across the membrane. |
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THRESHOLD POTENTIAL |
potential difference reaches a point around -50mV then it triggers action potential |
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LOCAL CURRENTS |
movement of ions along neurone. the flow of ions caused by increase conc at one pount which causes diffusion away from region of high conc |
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SALTATORY CONDUCTION |
conduction means jumping conduction refers to the way the action potential appears to jump from one node of ranvier to anouther |
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NEOROTRANSMITTER |
transmitter substance it is a chemcal that diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind tot the ligand gated channels on the post synapic membrane |
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CHOLINERGIC SYNAPSE |
synapse that uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter |
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SYNAPTIC KNOB |
the swelling end of the presynaptic neurone |
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ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE |
enzyme in the synaptic cleft that breaks acetylcholine into ethanoic acid and choline to be recycled |
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SUMMATION |
refers to the way that several small potential changes can combine to produce one larger change in potential difference across the membrane |
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ALL OR NOTHING |
the fact that the neurone conducts action potentials or it doesn't based on its stregth |
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TEMPORAL SUMMATION |
series of action potentials in the presynaptic neurone |
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SPACIAL SUMMATION |
many postsynaptic neurones or presynaptic to one presynaptic neurone ot postsynaptic neurone. |
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MYELINATED SHEALTH |
made up of schwann cells and is an insulated sheath around some neurones. allows for faster transmission of action potentials |
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HORMONE |
molecule that are released by endocrine glands and act as chemical messengers to the target cell. |
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ENDONCRINE GLAND |
gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood. NO ducts
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EXOCRINE GLAND |
secretes molecules into a duct hat carries the molecule to where it is used |
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TARGET CELL |
the cells that possess a specific receptor on their plasma membrane. The shape of the receptor is complementary to the hormone molecule |
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ADENYL CYCLASE |
the enzyme associated with receptor for many hormones, including adrenaline. found on the inside of the cell surface membrane |
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FIRST MESSENGER |
hormone that transmits signals around the body |
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SECOND MESSENGER |
is cAMP which transmits signals inside the cell |
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ADRENAL GLAND |
secretes adrenaline
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PANCREATIC DUCT |
tube that colects all secretions from the exocrine glands in the pancreas and carries the fluid to the intestine |
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ISLETS OF LANGERHANS |
small patches of tisssue in the pancreas that have an endocrine function |
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aCELLS |
secretes hormone glucagon |
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bCELLS |
secretes hormone insulin |
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INSULIN |
RELEASED FROM THE PANCREAS AND CAUSES THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS TO GO DOWN |
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GLUCAGON |
hormone that causes blood glucose to rise |
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HEPATOCYTES |
liver cells |
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GLYCOGENEISIS |
creating of glycogen from glucose |
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GLYCOGENOLYSIS |
break down of glycogen into glucose |
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GLUCONEOGENESIS |
creation of glucose from amino acids and fats |
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DIABETES MELLITUS |
a disease in which blood glucose concentrations cannot be controled effectively |
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HYPERGLYCAEMIA |
state when glucose concentration is too high |
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HYPOGLYCAEMIA |
the state when blood glucose is too low |
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STEM CELLS |
unspecialised cells that differentiate into specialised cells |
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CELL METABOLISM |
result of chemical reactions taking place in the cell |
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MYOGENIC |
muscel tissue that initiates its own contractin e'g HEART |
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MEDULLA OBLONGATA |
part of the brain that coordinates the unconscious functions of the body such as breathing rate and heart rate |
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ACCELERATOR NERVE |
run from medulla oblongata to heart |
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VAGUS NERVE |
runs from the medulla oblongata to the heart |
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CARDIOVASCULAR CENTRE |
region in the medulla oblongatta that receives sensory inputs about levels of physical activity,blood CO2 and blood pressure. Its sends impulses to the SAN in the heart to alter frequency of excitation waves |
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EXRETION |
removal of metabolic waste substances from the body |
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METABOLIC WASTE |
consists of waste substances that may be toxic or produced in excessby the reactions within the cell |
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DEAMINATION |
removing the amine group from the amino acids to produce ammonia |
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NEPHRON |
functional unit of the kidney. microscopic tubules that receive fluid from blood capillaries in the cortex and converts this into urine |
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GLOMERULUS |
fine network of capillaries that increases the local blood pressure to squeeze fluid out of the blood. |
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SELECTIVE REABSORBTION |
useful substances are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. |
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ULTRAFILTRATION |
filtration at a molecular level in the glomerulus where large molecules like blood cells and proteins stay but smaller molecules like amino acids, urea,glucose and ion pass |
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AFFERENT VESSELS |
bring blood to the organ |
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EFFERENT VESSELS |
take blood away from the organ |
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PODACYTES |
specialised cells that make up the lining of the bowmans capsule |
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MICROVILLI |
folds in the cell surface membrane that increase surface area of the cell |
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CO TRANSPORTER PROTEINS |
proteins in the cell surface membrane that help facilitated diffusion to occur |
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FACILITATED DIFFUSION |
diffusion that is enhanced by action of proteins |
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SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMPS |
special proteins in the cell surface membrane that actively transport sodium and potassium ions against the concentration gradient |
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HAIRPIN COUNTER CURRENT MULTIPLIER |
arrangement of the tubule where the loop of henle is. The fluid is moving in opposing directions allowing exchange between contents and can be used to create very high conc of solutes |
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DIALYSIS |
use partially permeable membranes to filter blood |
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HAEMODIALYSIS |
blood taken from vein and passed into a dialysis machine so exchange can be made across a partially permeable membrane |
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PERITONEAL DIALYSIS |
dialysis fluid pumped into patient body cavity so exchange can occur across peritoneal membrane |
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AUTOTROPHS |
use light energy and inorganic molecules to synthesise complex organic molecules |
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HETEROTROPH |
organisms that ingest and digest complex organic molecules releasing the chemical potential energy stored in them |
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NANOMETRE |
is a millionth of a millimetre |
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PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMNETS |
molecules that absorb light energy. each pigment absorbs a range of wavelengths in the visible region and has its own distinct peak of absorption. Other wavelengths are reflected |
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PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION |
making ATP from ADP and Pi in presence of light |
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ELECTRON CARRIERS |
molecules that transfers electrons |
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ELECTRON ACCEPTORS |
chemicals that accept electrons from anouther compounds. They are reduced while acting as oxidising agents |
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LIGHT INDEPENDENT STAGE |
in photosynthesis where CO2 is fixed to build complex organic molecules |
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LIMITING FACTOR |
metabolic processes the factor the is present at lowest or least favourable value |
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PHOTOSYNTHOMETER |
used to measure rate of photosynthesis |
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ENERGY |
ability to do work |
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ATP |
univeral energy currency of the cell that is phosphorylated |
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ANABOLIC |
reactions that synthesis larger molecules from smaller ones |
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CATABOLIC |
Breaking down larger molecules to form smaller molecules |
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OXIDATION |
loss of electron |
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REDUCTION |
gain electrons |
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GLYCOLYSIS |
metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm and converts glucose into pyruvate. Occurs in anaerobic and aerobic respiration |
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HEXOSE |
six carbon |
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HYDROLYSIS |
break down using water |
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TRIOSE |
3 carbon |
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MITOCHONDRIA |
membrane bound organell found in eukarotic cells and are the site for the link reaction, kreb cycle and oxidative phosphorylation |
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LINK REACTION |
converts pyruvate into acetate |
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KREB CYCLE |
oxidised acetate to produce reduced NAD and FAD for oxidative phosphorylation |
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION |
formation of ATP from ADP and Pi in presence of oxygen which is the final electron acceptor |
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CHEMIOSMOSIS |
diffusion of ions across a partically permeable membrane specifically hydrogen ions (proton) while producing ATP on the inner mitochondrial membrane |
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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION |
release of energy from substrates like glucose in an absence of oxgen |
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RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATE |
an organic substrate that can be used for respiration |
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HABITAT |
place where organisms live |
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POPULATION |
organisms of the same species that live in the same place at the same time and can breed |
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COMMUNITY |
populations of different species that liev in the same place at the same time and interact |
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BIOTIC FACTOR |
living factors |
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ABIOTIC FACTORS |
none living factors |
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PRODUCER |
supply chemical energy to the food chain by harvesting energy from light |
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CONSUMER |
get energy form consuming other living organisms |
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DECOMPOSERS |
feed on waste materials or dead organisms |
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TROPHIC LEVELS |
levels on which organisms feed in the food chain |
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PRODUCTIVITY |
rate of which energy passes through each trophic level in the food chain |
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PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY |
total amount of energy fixed from photosynthesis. The net flux of carbon from atomosphere to plants per unit time. |
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NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY |
rate in which carbohydrates accumulate in the tissues of plants of an ecosystem and is measured in dry organic mass` |
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SUCCESSION |
directional change in the community of organisms over time |
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Pioneer plant |
the first plant to colonise bare ground and survive the harsh conditions |
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climax community |
final stable community is reached |
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NITROGEN FIXATION |
fixing nitrogen gas into ammonium or nitrates |
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RHIZOBIUM |
bacteria that fixes nitrogen in the soil |
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LEGUMES |
plants that have nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root rodules |
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NITRIFICATION |
when chemoautotrophs absorb the ammonium ions |
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DENITRIFICATION |
bacteria converts the nitrates back into nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions |
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CARRYING CAPACITY |
maximum population size that can be maintained over a period of time in a paticular habitat. |
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LAG PHASE |
in population curve graph at the start when rate of reproduction is low and growth of population is slow. |
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LOG PHASE |
rate of reproduction is fast and exceeds the death rate |
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STATIONARY PHASE |
reached the carrying capacity where reproduction rate equals the morality rate |
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COMPETITION |
happens when resourses like food or water is in demand so individuals who require the resources compete |
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INTRASPECIFIC |
within the same specieas |
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INTERSPECIFIC |
between different species |
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COPPICING |
cutting the trunk of tree to ground level to encourage new growth |
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CONSERVATION |
maintenance of biodiversity, genetic diversity and species diversity of a habitat or ecosystem |
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PRESERVATION |
protecting habitat or ecosystem without touching it |
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FLIGHT OR FIGHT |
refers to full range of responses in animals when in situations perceived as dangerous it is a combination of nervous responces and hormonal responses. either confront or escape |
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INNATE BEHAVIOUR |
animal response that doesn't require learning as it is inherited response and is similar in all members of the same species and is always to the same stimulus |
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LEARNED BEHAVIOUR |
Animal responses that can change and adapt to experiences.They are not all the same in all members of the same species |
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Habituation |
Ignoring stimuli as they no longer pose threat |
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imprinting |
young individuals become associated with other organisms usually parent |
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING |
stimuli can be conditioned to get a conditioned response. assosiate two unrelated stimuli |
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operant condition |
rewarding behaviour assoicating stimui for reward and showing repetitive behaviour after trial and error |
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LATENT LEARNING |
exploring surrounding |
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INSIGHT LEARNING |
highest form of learning based on ability to think and solve problems |
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HIERARCHY |
within a group there is a hierarchy of rank and importance to the group. usually alpha male on top who gets mates and food |
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SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
organisms living together in habitata relatively define roles for each other in the group |
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DRD4 |
is one of the 5 gene codes for dopmine receptor molecules. dopamine binds to these recptor molecules but the cause differing effects beacsue they lead to different cellular responces |
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DOPAMINE |
is a neurotransmitter and hormone is it precursor molecule in the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline |
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ACTIN |
a protein filament found in muscle cells it is the main component of the thin filament |
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ALLOTRANSPLANTATION |
allotransplantations of organs between individuals of the same species, for example transplanting a human heart to another |
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AMPLIFICATION DNA |
making multiple copies of the same short section of DNA. PCR is used in automated amplification |
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Anabolic steroids |
Drugs that mimic the action of steroid hormones and increase muscle growth |
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annealing |
term described when hydrogen bods for between complementary base pairs when a single stranded DNA or RNA join together. It is seen when there are sticky ends where DNA probes attach to complementary DNA section |
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Antidiuretic hormone ADH |
hormone made in the hypothalamus and is released in pituitary gland. It acts on the collecting duct to increase water reapsorbtion back into blood |
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Apical dominace |
growing apical buds growth inhibits the growth of lateral buds |
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apoptosis |
programmed cell death. An orderly process in which cells die after they have undergone maximum number of mitotic divisions |
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Ascending limp of loop of henle |
this has a wall that is permeable to sodium ions. carries fluid from medulla to the cortex of kidney |
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aesepsis |
this is the conditions where unwanted microorganisms are removed. without contamination |
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aseptic technique |
any techniques of equipment or materials that are designed to prevent contamination by foreign and unwanted organisms |
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autonomic nervous system |
system of neurons that control non conscious actions of the body. Controls actions of involuntary glands and muscles
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batch culture |
culture of microorganisms that takes place in a single fermentation. products separated after process |
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bilrubin |
one of the waste products produced from breaking down haemoglobin |
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biofortified |
any food substance that has particularly valuable nutrients is in higher than the usual level. golden rice is biofortified with the accumulation of vitamin A |
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bioremediation |
use of microorganisms to remove waste products from a location or substance. The most important example is waste water (sewage) treatment |
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biootechnology |
use of miroorganism or biochemical reactions to produce useful products |
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bivalents |
pair of joined homologous chromosomes during prophase and metaphase of meiosis 1 |
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callus |
a group of undifferentiated plant cells grown from meristem cells and grown in tissue culture |
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central nervous sysem |
brain and spinal cord. controls over the coordination of the nervous system |
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chiasmata |
the points where non sister chromatids join and cross over |
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chi squared test |
statistical test that determined how closely associated the expected value was to the observed |
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chroionic gonadotrophin |
a hormone that is released by cells of embryo |
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chromatogram |
a chart produceed when substances are separated by movement of a solvent along a permeable material such as paper or gel |
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chromosome mutation |
random change of genetic material on chromosomes |
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clade |
a monophyletic taxonomic group that is a single ancestor and all its decendants |
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cladistics |
a method of classifying organisms based on their evolutionary ancestry |
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closed culture |
the culture of microorganisms are in closed conditions where no nutrients are replenished or waste removed and space in limited. |
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codominant |
a characteristic where both alleles contribute to the phenotype |
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comparative genome mapping |
comparing DNA sequences that code for proteins and regulatory regons in genome with same or different species |
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complementary genes |
genes that interact to govern the expression of a single characteristic |
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conjugation |
when bacteria cells join to form a nich(tunnel) to pass the genetic material between members of same or different species. Leading to antibiotic resistance |
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continuous culture |
where the conditions in the culture are readily replenished and waste is continuously remoed. |
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cotyledons |
food store in seeds of dicotyledonous plants in some plants these appear above soil after germination |
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cross-bridge |
inside voluntary muscles where the myosin head binds to the actin there is a cross bridge formed in the presence of calcium ions |
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crossing over |
occurs in prophase 1 or meiosis where non sister chromosomes exchange alleles |
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descending limb |
the loop going down from the cortex to the medulla of kidney |
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dialysis fluid |
fluid used in dialysis consists of complex solutions that matches the compositions in the blood |
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dialysis membrane |
partially permeable membrane separates the dialysis fluid from the patientd]s blood in a dialysis machine |
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digest |
hydrolyses large molecules to smaller ones |
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diploid |
having 2 sets of chromosomes. 1 mum and 1 dad. denoted at 2n |
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distal convoluted tubule |
coiled portion of the nephron between the loop of henle and collecting duct |
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DNA ligase |
the enzyme that catalyses the condensation reaction between the phosphate groups on the one nucleotide and sugar to another. This is a crucial part in recombinant DNA procedures |
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electrophoresis |
method used to separate molecules in a mixture based on their size. relies on the substance in the mixture having change. When current is applied the molecules go from one electrode to the opposite electrode. smallest molecule travel fastest through gel medium. used in Fingerprinting and separating DNA fragments |
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environmental resistance |
the combined approach of abiotic and biotic factor that limit growth of population |
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epistasis |
interaction between genes that are responsible for expression of one characteristic(phenotype) one gene masks the expression of another e.g. one gene produced enzyme or protein that masks the colour produced from another gene |
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explant |
piece of tissue taken from a particular plant (include meristems) then sterilised in order to grow in callus culture micropropagation |
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gametes |
specialised sex cells in many organisms these gametes are haploid containing only half the chromosomes of diploid and gametes are produced in meiosis. |
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gas chromatography |
a technique used to separate substances in gaseous state |
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gene |
a length of DNA that codes for one or more polypeptide.Some genes code for RNA and others are regulatory genes |
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gene pool |
total genetic information of a species. All the alleles present in the population. The gene pool is the total genetic information possessed by the reproductive members of the population |
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genetic drift |
change is allele frequency in a population as some alleles pass to the next generation and some disappear. Allows some genetic traits to be common and other to be rare |
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genetic engineering |
an area of biotechnology where a section of DNA is extracted using restriction enzymes or extracted from mRNA and using reverse transcriptase . The gene is then placed into the recipient organisms (bacteria).The transgenic organism then produced protein that is used for peoples benefit |
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genetic fingerprinting |
use of DNA fragmentation and electrophoresis gives banding patterns that are unique to individuals. Samples of DNA for example from a crime scene the sample can be taken amplified and the several strands are cut with different restriction enzymes and run through electrophoresis and compared with other samples of DNA treated with same restriction enzymes (e.g suspects line up DNA ) |
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GENETIC MARKERS |
antibiotic resistant gene that are on bacterial plasmids are used as markers to know if the bacteria has taken up the required gene. gene is inserted into the plasmid and if bacteria has taken up the gene they will not grow on the antibiotic. |
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GENETIC VARIATION |
variation of genetic variation in the gene pool |
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GENOME |
all the genetic information and material in an orgnaism |
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GENOME SEQUENCING |
a technique used to give the bases sequence of an organism.can only sequence 1000 base pairs of sequence in a fragment. In order to sequence the whole genome, overlapping fragments are sequenced and reassembled by computer software. |
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GENOMICS |
the study of the whole set of genetic information in the form of DNA base sequence that occur in the cells of a particular species |
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GENOTYPE |
the alleles present in a cell of an individual for a particular trait |
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GERM LINE GENE THERAPY |
this involves placing a gene into embryonic cells. This techniques in currently illegal |
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GOLDEN RICE |
a variety of rice that has been genetically engineered to contain vitamin A precursor beta carotene. This rice appears golden brown. |
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HAEMODIALYSIS |
this i a dialysis process where blood is taken from the vein and passed through dialysis fluid with the correct composition based on the patients blood composition exchange of the substances occurs across a partially permeable membrane |
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HAIRPIN COUNTER-CURRENT MULTIPLIER |
An arrangement of the kidney tubule that bend 180 degrees so that fluid can flow through in one end and flow back past the fluid at the other end. This arrangement allow the exchange of materials by ensuring that there is a concentration gradient all along the tubuke |
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half life |
the time taken for the concentration of the substance to drop to half its original value |
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HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE |
A concept where the genotype frequencies and gene frequencies will stay constant from generation to generation. within a large interbreeding population where mating is random, there is no mutation and no selection or migration |
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HAYFLICK CONSTANT |
this is the number of time a cell can undergo mitotic divisions before apoptosis occurs. it is around 50 |
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HERMIZYGOUS |
cell or individual having one allele for a particular gene |
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HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN |
an unusual blood vessel that has capillaries on either end and carries blood from the digestive system to the liver |
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hepatocytes |
liver cells |
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heterozygous |
Eukaryotic cell or organism that has two different alleles for a specific gene |
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HIERACHY |
this is the formation of individuals in a group based on their importance. Where the individual at the top gets food and mates before everyone else and usually protects the group. |
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HOMEOBOX GENES |
these genes are conserved throughout all organisms and code for the polarity of organs in the body. they code for body plans and development |
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homeotic selector genes |
these direct the development of individuals body segments. They are master genes that control that regulatory genes |
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homozygous |
eukaryokic cell that contains two of the same alleles for a specific gene |
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hox cluster |
the group of homeobox genes . more complex organisms have more hox clusters |
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HUMAN CHRIONIC GONADOTROPHIN (hCG) |
a hormone released by human embryo. its presence in pregnant women urine can confirm pregnancy |
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HYPOSTATIC |
where two alleles interact to control the expression of one characteristic, one is epistatic the other is hypostatic. where homozygous recessive allele at the first locus prevents the expression of another allele at the second locus. They alleles on the first locus are epistatic, the alleles on the second locus are hypostatic |
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isolating mechanism |
mechanism that divides populations into subgroups in speciation |
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kupffer cells |
these cells break down the old red blood cells in the sinosoids. they are specialised macrophages |
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linkage |
specific position on a chromosome occupied by a specific gene |
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maternal chromosomes |
member of the homologous pair that came from the female gamete |
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metabolic wate |
wast components of metabolic reactions such as carbon dioxide and water |
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microgpropagation |
also know as tissue culture and is a form of artificial vegetative propagation using sterile explants and growing them in a callus culture and growing in vast numbers. all become genetically identical |
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microvilli |
the lining of the cell surface membrane that increases surface area of the cell |
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monoclonal antibodies |
found in pregnancy tests they are antibodies that are identical because they have been produced by cells that are clone of the original cell |
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monogenic |
characteristic coded for by one gene |
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monophyletic |
monophyletic group includes the ancestral organism and the descendant species |
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morhogen |
A substance that controls patterns of tissue developing. It is produced in a particular region of a developing organism . It diffuses into other cells and enter specific development process |
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motor area |
an are of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for motor functions |
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motor unit |
refers to the innervation of the cluster of muscle fibers by a single motor neuron. The number of muscle fibre in determined by the level of manipulation. muscle required for fine motor functions have 3 muscle fibres in a motor unit compared to muscle requiring more motor functions |
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mutation |
a structural change in genetic material- either to the gene or the chromosome |
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myosin |
protein that forms the thick filament in a muscle cell. It contains myosin heads that bind to the actin forming cross bridges |
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necrosis |
disorderly or accidental cell death |
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neurosecretory cells |
cells in the hypothalamus that are similar to the neuron but release a hormone into the blood instead of transmitting substance across a synapse |
