Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
99 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is localisation of function? |
- different areas of the brain responsible for different behaviours/processes/activities |
|
|
What was the holistic theory of the brain? |
- all parts of the brain were involved in the processing of thought and action |
|
|
What did Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke argue about brain function? |
- certain brain areas associated with physical/psychological functions - different parts performed different tasks |
|
|
What is the lateralisation of function in the brain? |
- physical/psychological functions mainly by one hemisphere - left side controlled by right hemisphere - right side controlled by left hemisphere |
|
|
What is the cerebral cortex? |
- outer layer of both hemispheres - more developed in humans |
|
|
What are the four lobes of each hemisphere? |
- frontal - parietal - occipital - temporal *named after bones they are under |
|
|
What is the motor area? |
- back of frontal lobes - voluntary movement in opposite side of body - damage=lose control of fine movement |
|
|
What is the somatosensory area? |
- front of parietal lobes - where sensory info from skin is represented - more area devoted=more sensitivity |
|
|
What is the central sulcus? |
- the valley which separates the motor and somatosensory areas |
|
|
What is the visual area? |
- in occipital lobes at back of brain - info from right visual field to left visual cortex - damage to left hemisphere=blindless in right visual field of both eyes |
|
|
What is the auditory area? |
- in temporal lobes - analyse speech info - damage=hearing loss - damage to specific area=affect ability to comprehend language |
|
|
What did Broca find about the localisation of language? |
- identified small area of left frontal lobe=speech production - damage=slow, laborious, lack frequency - Broca's area |
|
|
What did Wernicke find about Wernicke's area? |
- patients difficulty understanding language, not producing - area in left temporal lobe=language comprehension - damage=produce nonsense words in speech |
|
|
What are the evaluation points of localisation of brain function? |
- brain scan evidence - neurosurgical evidence - case study evidence - lashley's research - plasticity |
|
|
What is the brain scan evidence evaluation point of localisation of function? |
Peterson: Wernicke's area active in listening;Broca's active in reading=diff. functions - highly objective methods=scientific |
|
|
What is the neurosurgical evidence evaluative point of localisation of function? |
- remove parts of brain to control behaviour Dougherty: 44 OCD patients/cingulotomy/32 weeks=1/3 success - localisation of mental disorder behaviours |
|
|
What is the case study evidence evaluative point of localisation of function? |
Phineas Gage: pole through face/frontal lobe destroyed/personality change (calm to rude) - frontal lobe may control mood=support localisation |
|
|
What is Lashley's research evaluative point of localisation of function? |
- highly cognitive functions follow holistic theory - remove rat cortex areas=no area more important in learning - learning too complex to be localised |
|
|
What is the plasticity evaluative point of localisation of function? |
- brain damaged=rest of brain compensates for action - stroke victims recover lost abilities - more than one area control same function |
|
|
What is brain plasticity? |
- brain's ability to change throughout life - neural connections change throughout life, not just in infancy |
|
|
What is synaptic pruning? |
- rarely used connections are deleted - frequent connections are strengthened |
|
|
What was Maguire's research into brain plasticity? |
- London taxi drivers had more grey matter in posterior hippocampus than matched control - longer in job=more defined structure difference |
|
|
What was Draganski's research into brain plasticity? |
- med student brain images three months pre/post final exams - learning=change in posterior hippocampus/parietal cortex |
|
|
What was Mechelli's research into brain plasticity? |
- found larger parietal cortex in bilingual people vs matched monolingual control |
|
|
How does the brain functionally recover after trauma? |
- injury/trauma=unaffected areas adapt for damaged (functional recovery) - quickly after trauma (spontaneous recovery) - slows down=rehab therapy needed |
|
|
What structural changes occur during functional recovery? |
- Axonal sprouting: nerve endings grow/connect=new pathways - Reformation of blood vessels - Recruit similar area on other hemisphere |
|
|
What are the evaluation points of brain plasticity? |
- practical applications - negative plasticity - support from animal studies - concept of cognitive reserve |
|
|
What are the practical applications of brain plasticity? |
- contributes to neurorehabilitation - physical therapy after spontaneous recovery - brain can't fully heal alone |
|
|
What is the negative plasticity evaluative point of brain plasticity? |
- behavioural consequences e.g long drug use=cognitive function down - risk of dementia up - 60-80% amputees=phantom limb syndrome=unpleasant |
|
|
What is the support from animal studies for brain plasticity? |
Hubel/Wiesel: sew one kitten eye shut;analyse brain response=visual cortex area of closed eye not idle;continued to process info from open eye |
|
|
What is the concept of cognitive reserve evaluative point for brain plasticity? |
- education affects functional plasticity Schneider: brain injury patients;longer in school=disability free recovery - 2/5 patients 16+ years in school vs 10% <12 years in school |
|
|
What is split brain research? |
- 1960s onwards studies of epileptic patients with hemispheres surgically separated - investigate extent to which brain function is lateralised |
|
|
What is hemispheric lateralisation? |
- two hemispheres are functionally different - specific processes/behaviours controlled by one hemisphere |
|
|
What was Sperry's split brain study into hemispheric lateralisation? |
- epileptic group had corpus callosum cut to separate hemispheres=control seizures - see if hemispheres performed tasks independently |
|
|
What was the procedure of Sperry's split brain research? |
- image/word shown in right visual field (left hemisphere) vice versa - normal brain=corpus callosume share info between hemispheres=complete picture - split brain patient=info not shared |
|
|
What were the findings of Sperry's research about describing what you see? |
- picture shown to right visual field, could describe;left visual field, nothing there - right hemisphere lacks language centres |
|
|
What were the findings of Sperry's research about recognition by touch? |
- object shown in left visual field;could match object from grab bag behind screen using left hand - selected closely related object |
|
|
What were the findings of Sperry's research about composite words? |
- two words same time each visual field - write with left hand word in left visual field - say the word in the right visual field |
|
|
What were the findings of Sperry's research about matching faces? |
- right hemisphere dominant - shown face to each visual field;asked to macth from series of faces, left visual field chosen - composite picture, left hemisphere described, right matched |
|
|
What are the evaluation points of Sperry's split brain research? |
- demonstrate lateralisation - strengths of methodology - theoretical basis - issues with generalisation - differences in function overstated |
|
|
What is the demonstrated lateralised brain functions evaluative point of Sperry's split brain research? |
- left hemisphere=analytic/verbal tasks - right hemisphere=spatial/music tasks/emotion to language - left=analyser;right=synthesiser |
|
|
What are the strengths of methodology for Sperry's split brain research? |
- highly standardised procedures - one eye blindfolded;image 1/10th sec=no time to spread info to both visual fields - well controlled |
|
|
What is the theoretical basis evaluative point of Sperry's split brain research? |
- debate on communication between hemispheres Pucetti: so functionally different=two minds Others: highly integrated=both involved in everyday tasks |
|
|
What are the issues with generalisation of Sperry's split brain research? |
- unusual/small sample, all had epileptic seizure history - influence findings;some more disconnection than others |
|
|
What is the difference in function overstated evaluative point of Sperry's split brain research? |
- labelling hemispheres=oversimplifying=less clear cut - normal brain=constant communication performing everyday tasks - many behaviours of one hemisphere done by other |
|
|
What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)? |
- measures brain activity performing task - detect radio waves from changing magnetic fields - detect regions of brain rich in O2 - 3D images/helps understanding of localisation of function |
|
|
What are the strengths of fMRI? |
- doesn't rely on radiation=virtually risk-free - non-invasive - straight forward - high resolution |
|
|
What are the weaknesses of fMRI? |
- expensive compared to other techniques - clear image if person stays still - poor temporal resolution - only measures blood flow not neurone activity |
|
|
What is electroencephalogram (EEG)? |
- records tiny electrical impulses - measures wave patterns=diagnose certain conditions e.g epilepsy, tumors, disorders of sleep |
|
|
What are the strengths of EEG? |
- diagnose brain conditions - contributed to understanding of sleep stages - high temporal resolution |
|
|
What are the weakness of EEG? |
- information too general - can't pinpoint source of neural activity - can't distinguish activities in different adjacent locations |
|
|
What are event-related potentials (ERPs)? |
- statistical analysis of EEG showing electrophysiological response to specific events e.g. sensory/cogntive/motor |
|
|
What are the strengths of ERPs? |
- more specific measure of neural processes - excellent temporal resolution compared to other techniques - used to measure cognitive functions/deficits |
|
|
What are the weaknesses of ERPs? |
- methodology lacks standardisation=difficult to confirm finding - pure data=background noise/extraneous material eliminated=not always achieved |
|
|
What are post-mortem examinations? |
- analyse the brain after death=observed behaviours in lifetime linked to brain abnormality |
|
|
What are the strengths of post-mortems? |
- foundation of understanding key brain processes - used by Broca/Wernicke - improve medical knowledge=generate hypotheses |
|
|
What are the weaknesses of post-mortems? |
- causation issues=damage from unrelated trauma - ethical issues (consent of patients) |
|
|
What are biological rhythms? |
- distinct patterns of changes in body activity=cyclical time periods |
|
|
What are the two factors which control biological rhythms? |
- endogenous pacemakers (internal clocks) - exogenous zeitgebers (external changes) |
|
|
What is a circadian rhythm? |
- biological rhythm with a 24 hour cycle - regulates body processes e.g. sleep/wake cycle and core body temperature |
|
|
What else controls our sleep/wake cycle? |
- light=important exogenous zeitgeber - makes us drowsy at night and alert in the morning |
|
|
What was Siffre's cave study? |
- spent extended time underground=study effects on biological rhythms - deprived of natural light/sound - 2 months in Southern Alps, resurfaced in September 1962;thought it was mid-August - endogenous pacemaker slowed to 25 hours |
|
|
What was Aschoff and Wever's research into circadian rhythms? |
- participants 4 weeks in WWII bunker=no sunlight - all but one showed 24-25 hour circadian rhythm - natural cycle longer;entrained by exogenous zeitgebers |
|
|
What was Folkard's research into circadian rhythms? |
- 12 people;3 weeks in dark cave - sleep=clock time 11.45pm;rise=7.45am - gradually sped up clock time=22 hr day - only one person comfortably adjusted - free-running circadian rhythm not easily overriden by exogenous zeitgebers |
|
|
What are the evaluation points of circadian rhythms? |
- practical application to shift work - practical application to drug treatment - use of case studies and small samples - poor control in studies - individual differences |
|
|
What are the practical applications of circadian rhythms to shift work? |
- understanding consequences of disrupting circadian rhythm - night workers=down conc. at 6am=mistakes - shift workers 3x likely develop heart disease=adjust sleep/wake cycle - implications=manage worker productivity |
|
|
What are the practical applications of circadian rhythms to drug treatments? |
- circadian rhythms co-ordinate heart rate, digestion and hormone levels - effects action of drugs on body;peak times when most effective - guidelines on timing for some meds |
|
|
What is the use of case studies and small samples evaluative point of circadian rhythms? |
- studies involve small groups e.g. Aschoff/Wever - not representative/generalisable |
|
|
What is the poor control in studies evaluative point of circadian rhythms? |
- Siffre still had access to artificial light (lamp)=assumed no effect Czeisher: Adjust circadian rhythms 22 to 28 hrs using dim light - artificial light affected Siffre's findings |
|
|
What is the individual difference evaluative point of circadian rhythms? |
- sleep/wake cycle can vary in people from 13 to 65 hours Duffy: some prefer early rise vs some prefer opposite - age differences in sleep/wake patterns |
|
|
What is an infradian rhythm? |
- biological rhythms that have a period of more than 24 hours e.g. menstrual cycle/seasonal affective disorder |
|
|
What is the menstrual cycle? What occurs during the cycle? |
- typical cycle lasts about 28 days - oestrogen levels up=release egg;progesterone thickens womb lining - no pregnancy=egg absorbed - womb lining leaves body |
|
|
What was McClintock's research into the menstrual cycle? |
- 29 women irregular periods - pheromones from 9 women at different stages on cotton pad (8 hrs) - rubbed on upper lip of 20 women - 68% women cycles changed to match 'odour donor' |
|
|
What is seasonal affective disorder? What are the possible causes? |
- symptoms triggered in winter months=daylight hours shorter - hypothesised melatonin implicated - night=pineal gland secretes melatonin until dawn (light up) - lack of light=longer secretion=effect serotonin production |
|
|
What are ultradian rhythms? |
- biological rhythms with a period of less than 24 hours e.g. sleep stages - 5 distinct stages have 90 minute durations=continues throughout night |
|
|
Describe stages 1 and 2 of the sleep cycle. |
- light sleep=easily woken - beginning of sleep, brainwaves slower/rhythmic (alpha waves), then slower (theta waves) as sleep gets deeper |
|
|
Describe stages 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle. |
- delta waves=slower/greater amplitude - deep sleep/slow wave sleep=difficult to wake someone |
|
|
Describe stage 5 of the sleep cycle (REM sleep). |
- body paralysed - brain activity speeds=awake brain - REM=rapid eye movement - REM activity highly correlated to dreaming |
|
|
What are the evaluation points of ultradian and infradian rhythms? |
- evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle - methodological limitations in synchronisation studies - evidence supports the idea of distinct stages in sleep - animal studies - practical application to SAD |
|
|
What is the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle evaluative point of ultradian and infradian rhythms? |
- past=advantageous to menstruate together=pregnant together=newborns raised in group=increase survival |
|
|
What is the methodological limitations in synchronisation studies evaluative point of ultradian and infradian rhythms? |
- confounding variables e.g. stress/diet/exercise not controlled - patterns in synchronisation may due to chance - small samples;self report |
|
|
What is the evidence supports idea of distinct stages in sleep evaluative point of ultradian and infradian rhythms? |
Dement/Kleitman: 9 adult sleep patterns in lab;EEG;control caffiene/alcohol;REM highly correlated to dreaming;brain activity varied how vivid dreams were - replicated;small sample size |
|
|
What are the animal studies evaluative point of ultradian and infradian rhythms? |
- knowledge of pheromone effect on behaviour derived from animal studies - evidence for effect in human behaviour speculative/inconclusive - can't fully generalise animal study findings |
|
|
What are the practical applications to SAD of ultradian and infradian rhythms? |
- phototherapy=reset melatonin levels=relieve symptoms in 60% sufferers - placebo effect 30% 'sham negative ion generator'=doubt on influence of phototherapy |
|
|
What are endogenous pacemakers? |
- internal body clocks regulating biological rhythms e.g. SCN influencing sleep/wake cycle |
|
|
What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)? |
- nerve bundle in hypothalamus - primary endogenous pacemaker of mammal - maintains circadian rhythm e.g. sleep/wake cycle - nerve fibres connected to eye cross optic chiasm to visual area of cerebral cortex - SCN above optic chiasm=receives light info;continues when eyes closed |
|
|
What was Decoursey's animal study into the SCN? |
- destroyed SCN in 30 chipmunks - returned to natural habitat/observed for 80 days - significant portion killed (awake when should've been asleep) |
|
|
What was Ralph's animal study into the SCN? |
- bred 'mutant' hamsters with 20 hr sleep/wake - SCN from mutant transplanted to normal=cycles defaulted to 20 hrs - emphasise role of SCN in maintaining circadian sleep/wake cycle |
|
|
What are exogenous zeitgebers? |
- external cues which affect biological rhythms e.g. light on sleep/wake cycle |
|
|
How are the pinal gland and melatonin affected by the SCN? |
- SCN passes info on light to pineal gland - night=increases melatonin production (induces sleep) |
|
|
How does light work as an exogenous zeitgeber? |
- resets SCN=maintain sleep/wake cycle - indirect influence on hormone secretion/blood circulation |
|
|
What was Campbell and Murphy's research into light as an exogenous zeitgeber? |
- light detected by skin receptors when not received by eye - 15 participants woken diff. times - light shone on back of knee - deviated sleep/wake cycle up to 3 hrs - don't necessarily rely on eyes to influence the brain |
|
|
How do social cues act as an exogenous zeitgeber? |
- 6 weeks=circadian rhythm;16 weeks=most babies entrained - influenced by parents schedules (mealtimes/bedtimes) - adapting to local time for eating/sleeping=beat jetlag |
|
|
What are the evaluation points of exogenous zeitgebers and endogenous pacemakers? |
- beyond the master clock - ethics in animal studies - influence of exogenous zeitgebers overstated - methodological issues in studies - interactionist system |
|
|
What is the beyond the master clock evaluative point of EZ and EP? |
- many circadian rhythms in organs/cells (peripheral oscillators) - highly influenced by SCN, act independently Damiola: change mice feed pattern alter liver cell circadian rhythm by 12 hours/SCN unaffected - other complex influences on sleep/wake cycle |
|
|
What are the ethics in animal studies evaluative point of EZ and EP? |
- cannot generalise findings from animal studies to humans - animals exposed to harm/risk when returned to natural habitat |
|
|
What is the influence of EZ overstated evaluative point of EZ and EP? |
Miles: young man blind from birth;circadian rhythm 24.9 hrs;despite social cues, sleep/wake cycle not adjusted - occasions EZ little effect on internal rhythm |
|
|
What is the methological issues in studies evaluative point of EZ and EP? |
- Campbell and Murphy study not replicated - limited light exposure to eyes=major confounding variable - isolating light doesn't give insight to other zeitgebers influence |
|
|
What is the interactionist system evaluative point of EZ and EP? |
- free-running endogenous pacemakers exceptional circumstances - total isolation extremely rare=lack validity - pacemakers/zeitgebers interact |
