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50 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Skeletal system and muscular system are tightly intergrated, allowing various parts of the body to be used as lever systems and our understanding of adaptations related to locomotion.
____&_____ are the responsible specializations that deliver the adequate energy to the muscles used for active locomation; particularly the more demanding forms. |
respiration & circulation
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What are the two major features of vertebrates. both of these features are key to the arrangement of their cardio-vascular systems.
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-ability to gain large size
-highly active lifestyle |
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One of the things that happens as animals become larger is that the ratios of surface areas to volume ____.
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decreases
(this means that the surfaces for exchange of materials needed to support a disproportionally increasing mass cannot keep up without major changes in shape. |
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if animals are very same they have large surface relative to their volume, so what do they primarily rely on
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simple diffusion for the exchange of gases and nutrients between the body and environment
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as animals become larger, one problem is the area available for exchange is inadequate, what is the other issue?
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the distances over which materials would have to diffuse to reach the innermost parts of the animals is too great for simple diffusion across the body surface to be effective.
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The fact the vertebrates also became more active compounds this problem because it means that not only are they potentially dealing with more mass, but that mass requires more _______to support a high level of activity
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fuel per gram
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To accomadate the changes of larger animals with highly levels of activity, there have been two broad categories of modifications. The first is the elaboration of surfaces for the exchange of materials to increase the surface area. What is the second modification?
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mechanisms for the bulk flow of materials through the body.
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Modifications allow the use of diffusion for respiration and circulation, but ___ the surface available for diffusion and allow materials to diffuse over a _____ distance and then be carried to all parts of the body as needed.
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increase; short
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What is respiration
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the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the environment( this is done by diffusion) slide 3
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what is the equation for the rate of diffusion
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R=D*A*(change in p/ d)
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___is a diffusion coefficient
what does the coefficient depend on ? |
D; medium in which O2 is dissolved and its temperature
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___is the surface are over which the diffusion takes place
___is the distance over which diffusion occurs ___ is the difference in partial pressure of the O2 between the two sides of the membrane. |
A;
d; change in p (triangle p) |
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what depend on the physica properties of the medium?
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diffusion coefficient
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Which factors are primarily important important for the rate of diffusion ( or at least more manipulatable)
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some animals can use either water or air, but beyond that there's not much they can do to play with this one.
- so the factors are surface area, the concentration gradient across the membrane, and the diffusion distance, |
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In amphioxus the pharyngeal slits are used for...
In craniates we see the pharyngeal slits coopted for use as... |
filter feeding and respiratory exchange occurs by simple diffusion.
gill chambers. |
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Which embryonic tissue(s) constitute the gill slits?
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endoderm and ectoderm: Gill slits develop embryonically as endodermal outpouchings
met by invaginations from the ectoderm. The epithelium lining the gills is of ectodermal origin. |
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What is the supporting skeletal element of a gill segment called...
Lateral to this skeletal element is and skeletal element that also supports the fill. What is it called? |
branchial arch; gill rays
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In gnathostomes, the first branchial arch becomes...and the second branchial arch becomes...There are five tat remain as support for the gill chambers.
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the jaws; the hyoid bone
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In chondrichthyans and some early fish, the first gill pouch is retained as a..., but lost in teleosts
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spiracle
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The common opening for both respiratory and digestive systems...
and is the direct opening for internal gill slits in gnathostomes... |
pharynx
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Bony flap covering gills in bony fish...
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operculum
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Differentiate between septal gills and aseptal gills...
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In septal skills the interbranchial septa is extended out to the body surface. These are found in elasmobranchs, such as the shark.
In aseptal gills the interbranchial septa ate reduced and the gills extend freely from the branchial arch. These are found in bony fish. |
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How is gill structure specialized to increase surface area for diffusion?
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The gill surfaces are elaborated into gill lamellae
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_______ _______ _______ project into the gill chamber and each of these bears ______ ______.
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Primary gill lamellae; secondary lamellae
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It is associated with the branchial arch and it brings de-oxygenated blood from the heart into close contact with the gill lamellae.
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Aortic arch
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Where in the gills does oxygen exchange take place?
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In the secondary lamellae because it bears the capillary beds, in which gas exchange occurs.
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In this process, oncoming water flows in the opposite direction of blood flow in the capillaries. This allows a greater proportion of the oxygen in the water to be extracted by the blood.
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Counter-current exchange
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In counter-current exchange, oncoming water flow is at an opposite direction of blood flow. What would happen if oncoming water flow is parallel to blood flow?
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The extraction of oxygen would be less efficient because eventually, the concentration of oxygen in the blood and water will be equal and after that no more diffusion will take place and only about half the oxygen
in the water will be transferred. On the other hand, when both fluids flow at opposing directions, the partial pressure of oxygen in the water is always a little higher than in the blood over the entire length of the contact, resulting in 80-95% of oxygen transfer to blood. |
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The exact amount of oxygen extracted from water in counter-current exchange depends on what...
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Depends on the distance over which the capillaries are in contact with the water and the rate of flow of the fluids while they are in contact.
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In counter-current exchange, when can the most oxygen be transferred?
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When the fluids are in contact over a large distance and if the speed is slow.
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What is the bulk flow component of respiration better known as...and what is it...
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ventilation; the movement of large volumes of water or air over respiratory surfaces.
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water generally moves in two directions over the gills. T/F
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False: Water is generally moved over the gills in a single direction: in through the mouth and
out through the external gill opening. |
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What mechanism do fish use to ventilate their gills...
What happens in the first phase..what happens in the second phase |
They use a two-phase pumping action
In the first phase the external openings of the gills are closed and the mouth is open. During the second phase, the mouth is closed and the external gill openings are opened. |
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The first phase of the two-phase pumping action is similar to..., why? The second phase is similar to..., why?
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1. suction pump; because it generates negative (subambient) pressure
2. force pump; because this phase relies on the generation of positive pressure |
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simpler method of gill ventilation used by fast-swimming sharks and bony fish
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ram ventilation
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What is ram ventilation?
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When fish swim fast with their mouth and gill slits open, in which water is forced over the gills as the fish swims through.
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Lungs are an obvious adaptation to terrestrial life T/F
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False: lungs are actually a
primitive feature of the osteichthyes. |
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In what way can oxygen be depleted?
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in rising temperature of water and if there is an overabundance of algae or other vegetation in the water because oxygen is
used as this material decays. |
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In the fish, what are the accessory organs that develop as outpocketings of the gut
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They can become either accessory lungs or swim bladders
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Function of a swim bladder
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controls buoyancy
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How do lungs differ from swim bladders?
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Tend to become subdivided and the surface is elaborated to increase the surface area.
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Gas organs can develop as either..
What does it normally develop into when it is dorsal... the swim bladder may or may not have a connection to... |
dorsal or ventral
swim bladder the digestive tract |
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When swim bladders develop without a connection to the digestive tract, how does diffusion proceed?
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the amount of gas in the bladder is adjusted by gas exchange with the blood
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In tetrapods, the lung develops as a ______ from the digestive tract at the pharynx and the trachea
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diverticulum
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What is the tube that splits off from the esophagus...
How is the trachea separated from the esophagus... |
trachea; by an opening called the glottis
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The trachea generally
branches into ____ ____ ___ which go to each of the two lungs. |
two primary bronchi
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What is the evolutionary pattern of tetrapod lungs...
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is toward increasing elaboration of the lung surface area by increasing
levels of compartmentalization |
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What does the amount of surface ares in lungs per unit body size also depend on...
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to some extent on the level of activity of the animal.
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In amphibians we see
simple ________ of the epithelium of the lung, in reptiles we begin to see more ________. |
invaginations; subdivision
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In mammals, the primary bronchi divide into _____ and ____ bronchi, then into ______, then _____ ______, which look kind of like bunches of grapes, and finally tiny, thin-walled _____, which are the sites of gas exchange.
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secondary;tertiary; bronchioles; alveolar sacs; alveoli
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