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Parallel to those of the Iranian revolution, this group of people was driven by political concerns of the society and eventually turned their political problems to religion. This movement was initiated by Hassan al-Banna, an ordinary religious scholar whose foundation of political activism was rooted in Islamic values. It was also Egyptian youths, who continued to take a critical role in the Muslim Brotherhood movement in Egypt through the 1970s. When President Sadat was becoming a target of criticism because of his Western-inclined policies and a treaty with Israel, these young, ordinary groups of people with non-political or religious backgrounds launched the most militant opposition to the Egyptian regime. In this way, the Muslim Brotherhood and the Iranian revolution illustrate that the Islamic movements in the twentieth century were initiated and supported by commoners who looked for the solution for the social
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In this effort, Zionism redefined a religious community of Jews as a national community, which was established on the belief that Jews have the same right to self-determination as other peoples. During 1882 to 1914, the pogroms and anti-Semitic policies of tsarist Russia and Europe caused more than three million Jews to migrate westward, including the New World, Central or Western Europe, and Palestine (Hourani 558). In 1882, at the height of the pogroms, Leo Pinsker argued, in his book Autoemancipation, anti-Semitism was so deeply embedded in European society that no matter what the laws said about emancipation, Jews would never be treated as equal. To end their perpetually alien status, Jews would not wait for Western society to change; they had to seize their own destiny and establish an independent Jewish state (Hourani 558). Hence the climate of nineteenth-century European nationalism was an accelerating factor for Jews to unite under the Zionist movement; it also confirms Gelvin’s argument regarding the rise of
In this effort, Zionism redefined a religious community of Jews as a national community, which was established on the belief that Jews have the same right to self-determination as other peoples. During 1882 to 1914, the pogroms and anti-Semitic policies of tsarist Russia and Europe caused more than three million Jews to migrate westward, including the New World, Central or Western Europe, and Palestine (Hourani 558). In 1882, at the height of the pogroms, Leo Pinsker argued, in his book Autoemancipation, anti-Semitism was so deeply embedded in European society that no matter what the laws said about emancipation, Jews would never be treated as equal. To end their perpetually alien status, Jews would not wait for Western society to change; they had to seize their own destiny and establish an independent Jewish state (Hourani 558). Hence the climate of nineteenth-century European nationalism was an accelerating factor for Jews to unite under the Zionist movement; it also confirms Gelvin’s argument regarding the rise of