In 1966 large numbers of high school and university students were organized into paramilitary groups known as the Red Guards. Mao closed all of China’s schools and encouraged the Red Guards to attack all “traditional values” and to test party officials by publicly criticizing them. Millions of students stormed through cities and towns, harassing and often physically attacking officials, intellectuals, teachers, and others thought to be not fully committed to revolutionary values. Large numbers of these people died. The resulting terror and chaos completely disrupted city life as well as urban industries, and China’s economy suffered greatly. Rival factions of Red Guards also began fighting each other in large armed clashes. In 1968 Mao sent
