Heart failure results in low cardiac output and inadequate filling of the arteries which causes the heart to be unable to pump enough blood to meet with tissue demand of oxygen and nutrients. Consequently, the neurohormonal system activates several feedback mechanisms. The baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinus that normally inhibit sympathetic nervous system activity are blunted in the patient who is experiencing heart failure. This results in high levels of circulating catecholamine (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine). In addition, the circulating catecholamine increase force of myocardial contractility, as does the increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The patient’s heart rate increases, and the blood
