Throughout the history of literature, countless authors have attempted to capture and offer unique interpretations on the concept of Hell. Many texts differ in their imaginations of Hell, largely because there is no definitive explanation as to whether Hell is a physical place or a mental experience. One of the most fascinating descriptions of Hell, and one which offers a stimulating perspective on Satan, is the Old English poem Genesis B found within the Junius Manuscript. Genesis B follows Lucifer’s fall from Heaven which occurs as a consequence of his arrogance, pride, boasting, and disobedience to God. Lucifer, who was once the bearer of light, is thrown into the depths of Hell and transforms to represent pure darkness with his new name Satan and position as Hell’s malevolent ruler. Throughout the poem, both the narrator and Satan use vivid imagery and descriptive words which suggest that Hell is a literal place. However, the poem also focuses on the suffering that takes place in Hell, which contrasts the former in suggesting that Hell is more so an experience. Genesis B presents Hell as a place and a mental experience to give a multidimensional view of Hell with both the location and experiential punishment it represents. In this respect, the poem’s imagination of Hell begins as a state of mind which then turns into a real place– proving that Hell is both a place and a state of mind and putting forth the notion that the ultimate torment is one that is both experiential and literal. Throughout the earlier lines of Genesis B, the narrator plays close attention to Hell as a state of mind by emphasizing Satan’s bodily experience and mental state.
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The narrator first calls attention to the mental suffering and experience of Hell by referencing the apostate angels and their arrogance: And they understood That all they had won, with their high-flowing boldness And more than anything else their pride, Was endless suffering (100-103). It is important to note that the last line of this passage accentuates the suffering of the angels without linking their suffering to physical bondage or taking place in a specific location. Instead, they highlight the mental suffering and remorse caused by the sins of Satan and the other fallen angels. This infinite suffering is repeated when Satan states, “now we suffer the pains / of Hell – the darkness, the heat – / Savage, unending” (155-157). As Satan is tormented by the pangs of Hell, he experiences sorrow for his wrongdoings, which can be seen when the narrator declares, “Satan spoke, and his words were sorrowful / From that day forth the ruler of Hell / And its lord forever” (113-115). Also notable is Satan’s bodily suffering when he is literally chained to Hell, apparent when he yells out that he “cannot move” and “ha[s] no power” (143, 138). In his confines, Satan experiences pain physically but is also tormented mentally by the power he once had and his own pride which lead him to his current state. In fact, for Satan, the worst pain that distresses his mind is knowing that Adam will assume the heavenly throne that was once his and that he so carelessly lost. Moreover, the description of Satan’s experience in Hell focuses on his subjective reality over an objective truth. In this respect, the narrator is expressing and depicting how things “seemed” to Satan, suggesting his state of mind perception of the experience. The poem further emphasizes the bodily suffering of the fallen angels through “punishments designed for their pain, specifically meant for them” (84), and “the worst of all punishments” (158). The former highlights pain as physical suffering, however, it is also notable that both lines stress Hell as being a punishment. This idea is extended when the narrator says, “down [Satan] went into torment” (108). Through this description of Satan, Hell is imagined as the ultimate form of extreme mental suffering. Instead of Hell being a literal place or location, Hell is a state of mind where sinners must experience the misery and distress of their own wrongdoings. This experience is so extreme that it denies even the ruler of Hell himself of all his implicit power. Therefore, the narrator’s focus on Satan’s bodily and mental suffering and
The narrator first calls attention to the mental suffering and experience of Hell by referencing the apostate angels and their arrogance: And they understood That all they had won, with their high-flowing boldness And more than anything else their pride, Was endless suffering (100-103). It is important to note that the last line of this passage accentuates the suffering of the angels without linking their suffering to physical bondage or taking place in a specific location. Instead, they highlight the mental suffering and remorse caused by the sins of Satan and the other fallen angels. This infinite suffering is repeated when Satan states, “now we suffer the pains / of Hell – the darkness, the heat – / Savage, unending” (155-157). As Satan is tormented by the pangs of Hell, he experiences sorrow for his wrongdoings, which can be seen when the narrator declares, “Satan spoke, and his words were sorrowful / From that day forth the ruler of Hell / And its lord forever” (113-115). Also notable is Satan’s bodily suffering when he is literally chained to Hell, apparent when he yells out that he “cannot move” and “ha[s] no power” (143, 138). In his confines, Satan experiences pain physically but is also tormented mentally by the power he once had and his own pride which lead him to his current state. In fact, for Satan, the worst pain that distresses his mind is knowing that Adam will assume the heavenly throne that was once his and that he so carelessly lost. Moreover, the description of Satan’s experience in Hell focuses on his subjective reality over an objective truth. In this respect, the narrator is expressing and depicting how things “seemed” to Satan, suggesting his state of mind perception of the experience. The poem further emphasizes the bodily suffering of the fallen angels through “punishments designed for their pain, specifically meant for them” (84), and “the worst of all punishments” (158). The former highlights pain as physical suffering, however, it is also notable that both lines stress Hell as being a punishment. This idea is extended when the narrator says, “down [Satan] went into torment” (108). Through this description of Satan, Hell is imagined as the ultimate form of extreme mental suffering. Instead of Hell being a literal place or location, Hell is a state of mind where sinners must experience the misery and distress of their own wrongdoings. This experience is so extreme that it denies even the ruler of Hell himself of all his implicit power. Therefore, the narrator’s focus on Satan’s bodily and mental suffering and