Sterols in plants are almost completely derived from acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). Acetyl-CoA is dimerized to acetoacetyl-CoA that then forms 3- hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) by a condensation reaction. HMG-CoA is reduced to mevalonic acid by 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR), a rate-limiting step in human isoprenoid biosynthesis. HMGR over-expression in transgenic tobacco plants resulted in increased levels of total sterols, indicating that HMGR is a limiting enzyme also in plant sterol biosynthesis (Schaller et al., 1995). The next step in sterol synthesis is to form squalene from mevalonic acid, and this is performend by a series of reactions where the final step is catalysed by the squalene synthase enzyme (SQS).…
The neutralization of the reaction was verified using pH paper to test whether the pH was neutral or slightly basic. At this point, the two possible products in the round bottom flask could have been exo- and endo-norborneol. Extraction and washing was performed and the exo- and endo-norborneol products formed were extracted into dichloromethane due to their similar solubilities, where the two products are overwhelmingly non-polar despite the one hydroxyl group. The dichloromethane (DCM) was the bottom layer formed, while the aqueous layer, the layer that was washed away, was the top and this was due to the weight of the chlorine atom that made DCM more dense. Extraction was repeated several times due to the partition coefficient, as it theorizes how smaller extractions are better than bigger extractions because they yield more concentrated extractions in the end.…
The goal of experiment four was to use sodium dichromate to oxidize borneol to camphor. The camphor was purified using sublimation, then reduced to isomeric alcohol isoborneol with sodium borohydride. 1H NMR was used to determine the ratio of borneol to isoborneol in the final product. The experiment was carried out by using sodium dichromate to oxidize a borneol solution. Once the reaction was complete the mixture was separated using extraction techniques, dried, and ether was removed via the rotovap.…
In the Fischer approach, an acid is used in order to allow the esterification to occur. Gas chromatography separates compounds by their elution time. Data and Results The compound in the gas chromatograph exhibited a retention time of 3.68 minutes.…
The main purpose of this experiment is to perform the Grignard reaction and synthesize, extract, purify and characterize the product of triphenylmethanol. The Grignard reagent was first synthesized using a nucleophilic addition reaction. The Grignard adduct was then hydrolyzed to form triphenylmethanol. The organic layer was extracted using diethyl ether, petroleum ether, brine and a separatory funnel. The theoretical percent yield was first calculated by finding the limiting reagent for this reaction.…
In solvent extraction the flakes, or soy flour in some cases, are soaked in a solvent such as hexane. The dissolved oil combines with the solvent to form a miscella mixture which is removed through evaporation. After the solvent is mostly removed, through the process of desolventization, the soy flakes or flour contain little oil and a high concentration of…
The goal of this experiment was to perform a synthesis of aspirin/ acetylsalicylic acid from salicylic acid, using a chemical synthesis procedure. The synthesis involved breaking the bond with acetic anhydride, also required heat and a catalyst, phosphoric acid, in order to beak and extract the bond. The solution used water in order to purify the solution in the way of recrystallization. The product was characterized using IR spectroscopy and melting point. The pure aspirin product that was formed in this experiment which had a chemical yield of 54.3% and had a melting point range of 117.8-125.2C. Chemical Synthesis is a process that starts with a simple structure, which then breaks and forms new bonds in order to create a new complex structure.…
After starting with 30 mL of an unknown mixture of two solvents, fractional distillation and gas chromatography were used to identify the unknowns as acetone and toluene in a 1 to 2.04 ratio of acetone to toluene. Fractional distillation was first used to separate the unknown mixture into its components based on boiling point. Distillation refers to the method of separating components of a mixture through heating and cooling. Simple distillation, which is especially useful in the separation of less-volatile substances from volatile substances, such as sugar from water, can be used to separate a liquid-liquid mixture if the boiling points of the component liquids differ by more than 40-50°C. A plot of temperature versus volume for a simple…
Chemicals: Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, sodium carbonate, gallic acid, trifluoroacetic and sulphuric acids, Trolox (6-hydroxy -2, 5, 7, 8- tetramethyl chromane-2-carboxylic acid), ABTS (2, 2'-azinobis (2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride), 2′, 7′-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA), dexamethasone (DEX), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were purchased from Sigma Inc. (St. Louis, MO). Catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1 and B2 were purchased from Chromadex (Irvine, CA). Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM), fetal bovine serum, TrypLETM, TRIzol reagent, and cDNA Reverse Transcription kit were purchased from Life Technologies ( Grand Island, NY). Penicillin and streptomycin were obtained from Fisher Scientific (Atlanta, GA). All other solvents and chemicals used in this investigation were obtained from VWR International (Suwanee, GA).…
Each of extracts and theirs pure compunds will weigh out 0.035 grams and will be dissolve with the 96% of ethanol. The disk was soak into the extract and then placed on the nutrient agar prepared. Then all the petri dish are placed in the incubator. The diameter of the ring appears on the nutrient agar was measured to determine the antimicrobial activity of each plant extract after 16 to 20…
Once upon a time, there was another DNA molecule, this time inside of a bacterium. This DNA decided that she wanted to create a new friend that was like her best friend but a little different and much smaller. This new friend would be called RNA, and through gene expression, would create a polypeptide. DNA decided, that in order to insure the completion of gene expression, she would create messenger RNA that would be called mRNA for short.…
Introduction Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most successful human pathogens, which can be detected in varied parts of the world . ()Some factors including virulence factor and drug resistance are efficacious in increasing infectious related death rate. Firstly, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains were recognized in the early 1960s, moreover, they considered as a nosocomial deathful pathogen due to their role in increasing costs and bedridden length() In 2010 almost 15-20 % of patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia were dead. () One of the most important ways in controlling and preventing of hospital infections is discerning serotype of this genus that is based on DNA molecular typing methods.…
DISTILLATION The purpose of experiment 1, fractional distillation and gas chromatography, was to separate an unknown organic mixture into two liquids. The primary process of separation was fractional distillation, which utilizes the physical properties of the two unknown volatile liquids. Once the unknown mixture was successfully fractioned, gas chromatography was used to help determine the identity of the two unknown liquids. Fractional distillation and simple distillation both take advantage of two major physical properties to separate liquids.…
In this lab, benzoic acid, benzocaine, and 9-fulorenone are isolated from a three-component mixture by using the acid-base extraction and other following types of various extraction techniques. An acid-base reaction is utilized in order to isolate the individual species from the mixture. First, in isolating the base benzocaine, proton transfers occurred via reaction with hydrochloric acid, which led to a significant shift in the polarity of the said compound, although the conjugate acid of benzocaine formed as a result. Due to the change in polarity, the state of benzocaine shifted from being solubilized in diethyl ether to water.…
Similar to the unique emission spectrum of different chemical elements, different esters release distinct fragrances. They are responsible for many odors such as those found in apples, bananas, strawberries, jasmine, and roses. The saturation of the ester along with its molecular weight determine the strength of the odor emitted. 3 Procedure: First, 1.005 g of 4-aminophenol was placed in a test tube, followed by 3.1 mL of water and 1.25 mL of acetic anhydride. The mixture in the test tube was stirred for five minutes and allowed to cool to room temperature.…