After Steele and Aronson (1995)’s provocative study that Black freshman and sophomore college students underperformed on a standardized test if Black students’ race was emphasized before the test, stereotype threat effects have been widely found on various types of tasks among stigmatized groups. Children with lower socioeconomic status tend to perform worse on intellectual tasks than children with high socioeconomic status (Croizet & Claire, 1998). Latinos and particularly Latina women perform more poorly than White Americans if the task is labelled as a test of intelligence (Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002). Furthermore, even non-stigmatized individuals can be primed to experience stereotype threats. White American men performed more
