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209 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Organs
Bodys largest structures
Organ systems
Collections of organs
tissues
simpler structures that also make up organs
Cells
even smaller units of tissues. The simplest structure that can support life.
Organelles
carry out specific functions in cells
population
two or more members of the same type of organism, or species living in the same place at the same time
community
includes the populaiton of different species in a particular region
ecosystem
include both the living and non living components of an area
biospehere
the parts of the planet that can support life and all of the organisms that live there
molecules
organized groups of cells
biochemicals
uniquely found in cells
emergent properties
functions that arise as complexity grows
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Arise from physical and chemical interactions among components. Ex milk, flour, sugar, butter, and chocolate become brownies-something not evident from the parts themselves
metabolism
refers to the chemical reactions within cells that maintain life.
synthesize
build up
degrade
break down
producers
also called autotrophs extract energy from the nonliving environment
consumers
also called heterotrophs obtin energy by eating nutrients made by other organisms
decomposers
consumers that obtain nutrients from dead organisms
homeostasis
the ability to keep conditions constant. Keeps things moving smoothly
species
any group of organisms that can succesfully reproduce over several generations
asexual reproduction
offspring genetically identical to the parent
unicellular
single-celled. often produce asexually particularly if the living conditionds are ideal.
sexual reproduction
mixes genetic material usually from two individuals to form genetically unique offspring.
irritability
the tendency to respond immidealty to a stimuli. Ex a person touching a thorn and jerking back
adaptation
a response that develops over time.
natural selection
enhanced survival and reproduction success of certain individuals from a population based on inherited characteristics
mutated
changing of cells. provided the variation upon which natural selection acts
taxonomy
classifies life according to what we know about evolutionary realtionships of organisms
Classify and describe organisms
Domain
Kingdom
Division (phylum)
class
order
family
genus
species
hypothesis
based on some oberservations\ or discovery. A prediction.
experiment
test the hypothesis. cofirms or refines the hypothesis
Theory
systematically organized body of knowledge that applies to a variety of situations
epidemiology
the study of disease related data from real life
scientfici method
a general way of thinking and of organizing and investigation. A framework in which to consider ideas and evidence in a way that can be repeated with the same results
variable
single factor. the cause of the observed effect
control
provides a basis for comparison
double blind tests
an experiment in which neither the participants or the researchers know who recieved the substance being evaluated and who recieved the plaebo
placebo
a stand in for a drug being tested. A sugar pill or a treatment already known to be effective
periodic table
a chart with elements arranged according to their composition and properties
matter
material that takes up space
energy
the ability to do work
elements
pure substances. A type of atom. There are 92 known naturally occuring and 17 synthetic ones.
Bulk elements
Elements required in large amounts. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
Trace elements
Required in small amounts. Important in ensuring that vital chemical reactions occur fast enough to sustain life.
atom
the smallest possible piece of an element that retains the characterisitics of the element.
Protons
determine the size and characterisitics of each atom. Carries a positive charge
Nucleus
centralized core
electrons
surround the nucleus. carries a negative charge
neutrons
subatomic particle. helps form a centralized core along with protons
orbital
the most likely location for an electron relative to its nucleus
atomic number
above the elements symbol and shows the number of protons in the atom which also establishes the identity of the atom.
mass number
reflects the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom
isotopes
an atom that has a variable number of neutrons. All have the same charge and chemical characteristics but different masses
atomic mass
average mass of its isotopes. presented beneath the elements.
compound
atoms of two or more elements often exist joined together
molecule
the smallest unit of a compound.
diatomic
consisting of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
chemical reactions
two or more molecules interact with eachother to yield different molecules. These reactions allow us to move, rebuild cells, manipulate energy, and generally make life possible
reactants
the starting materials shown in an equation on the left
products
the end results shown in an equation on the right
organic molecules
contain water and hydrogen. Organisms are mostly composed of this molecule
macromolecules
very large organic molecules
energy shell
the particular distance from the nucleus. The farther an electron is from the nucleus the more energy it has. Energy level also helps approximate an electrons location
valence shell
the outermost shell in an atom.
octet rule
the tendency to require eight electrons in the valence shell
When Atoms Interact: Chemical Bonds
READ! Page 20-24
covalent bonds
hold together most of the moelcules of life. These strong bonds form when two atoms share electrons. Strongest Bond
nonpolar covalent bonds
the electrons are shared equally. Ex. Methane
polar covalent bonds
electrons draw more towards on atoms nucleus than the other
Polar
there is a difference between opposite ends of the molecule, usually formed by opposite charges.
electronegativity
the tendency of an atom to attract electrons
ionic bond
a bond where electronegativity pulls an electron from the other atom. The two atoms then have opposite charges and attract. A strong bond but not as strong as covalent
ion
once an atom loses or gains electrons it has an electric charge and is called this.
hyrdrogen bonds
the opposite charges on two molecules attract and form this kind of bond
Chapter 2
STUDY!! Look at the drawings of the molecules.
van der Waals attractions
dynamic interactions between molecules or within molecules that occur when oppositly charged regions approach one another
Hydrophobic
if part of a molecule lacks any kind of charge it becomes this and cannot interact with water. Ex. a drop of oil in a glass of water (water fearing)
Hydrophilic
parts of molecules have charge and are attracted to water. (water loving)
Cohesion
The attraction between identical molecules, which accounts for waters constant rebonding
adhesion
forming of hydrogen bonds to many other compounds. Water does this also and is important in many biological procceses
Fluidity
the ability of a substance to flow. The constant changing of hydrgogen bonding is what makes water flow.
imbibtion
the tendency of substances to absorb water and swell. this accounts for waters adhesivness.
solvent
a chemial in which other chemicals, called solutes, dissolve,
soltues
chemicals that dissolve in another chemical called a solute
solution
consists of one or more chemicals dissolved in a solvent
aqueous solution
a solution that uses water as a solvent
electrolytes
dissolved ions that make up the vital fluids of organisms
acids
Substances that add more H+ to a solution
bases
substances that decrease the number of H+
PH scale
A system of measurement that is used to gauge how acidic or alkaline a solution is in terms of its H+ concentrations.
Look on Page 25 for PH scale
buffer system
pairs of weak acids and bases. Maintain the pH of body fluids in vital range
heat capacity
the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of something. Ex. water
carbon
main component of the molecules that make up living systems
hydorcarbons
most basic organic molecule. Contain only hydrogen and carbon
Functional groups
atoms or groups of atoms that add functions to a moleculre by combining phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen to larger carbon skeletons
monomers
single-unit molecules
polymers
linked monomers.
dehydration synthesis
chemical reaction that joins to monomers into larger molecules ("made by losing water")
Hydrolysis
cells seperate monomers by adding water ("breaking with water") Much of what we call digestion is the realease of monomers through this reaction.
carbohydrates
consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen often in the proportion 1:2:1
monosaccharides
the smallest carbohydrates. differ from eachother by how many carbons they contain and how their atoms are bonded
disaccharide
forms when two monosacchardies link through dehydration synthesis.
oligosaccharides
moderatly sized carbohydrates often used by cells for identification and forming complex structures. Give cells unique functions and identity. Also important in enabling proteins called antibodies.
glycoproteins and glycolipids
on cell surfaces and important in immunity.
polysaccharides
complex carbphydrates found in food and in structural elements are made of this. They contain hundreds of glucose monomers. or modified sugars.
cellulose
long chains of glucose. Forms wood and parts of plant cell walls and its the most common organic compound in nature.
Starch
long chain of glucose. Familiar food component
Chitin
Second most common polysaccharide in nature. It forms the most flexible exoskeletons of insects, spiders, and crustaceans and form the cell wall of fungi
lipids
diverse molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Vital to life in many ways. Necessary for growth and utilization of some vitamins. They are hydrophobic and energy rich. Also speeds up nerve transmission due to cells rich in this molecule. Read Section 3.3
Fatty acids
simplest type of lipid in nature. long hydrocarbons of up to 36 carbon atoms with an acidic functional group at one end.
saturation
measure of hydrogen content
saturated fatty acid
contains all the hydrogen it possibly can which occurs when single bonds connect all the carbons. Page 34 (Figure 3.3)
unsaturated fatty acids
has one doulbe bond and polyunsaturated if it has more than one double bond. unsaturation causes the bonds to form kinks and spread their "tails" this allows lipids to be more fluid and produces and oily consistency at room temperature.
Triglyceride
consists of three fatty acids joined to a three carbon molecule called glycerol. Dehydration synthesis combines the fatty acids and glycerol releasing water. Commonly known as fat and is a complex way for cells to store energy.
phospholipid
fundamental molecule of membranes. Forms when enzymes replace one of the fatty acids in a triglyceride phosphate.
phosphate
oxygen rich and is highly negatively charged and therefore, hydrophilic.
Sterols
lipid molecules based on four interconnected carbon rings. additions and modifications of this strucute yeild hormones, vitamins, and cholesterol.
Cholesterol
vital for cells to maintain the fluidity of cell membranes and can maintain the fluidity of cell membranes and cn be modified to make other lipids, including the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen. Formed in the liver. Since it is hydrophobic , proteins must surround cholesterol to carry it through the bloodstream.
testosterone and estrogen
sex hormones
Amino Acids
Page 36 (Figure 3.6)
carboxyl group
(acid) a carbon atom double bonded to one oxygen and single bonded to another oxygen carrying a hydrgogen (COOH)
amino group
a nitrogen atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms (NH2)
R group
(aka sidechain) can be any of sevearl chemical groups
Peptide Bond
a carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with the nitrogen group of the other and forms this type of bond
dipeptide
two linked amino acids for a dipeptide bond
tripeptide bond
three amino acids joined together. larger chains with fewer than 100 amino acids are oligopeptides
conformation
as a protein is synthesized in a cell, it folds into a 3 dimensional structure called this.
primary (1)
structure or protein is just the amino aicd sequence of its polypeptide chain
secondary (2)
hydrogen bonds between parts of the peptide "backbone" form this
Motifs
as a result of secondary (2) and the folding of the polypeptide bonds these emerge. (Page 37)
tertiary (3)
proteins fold into their final structures through interactions between R groups and eachother or water.
Disulfide bonds
formation of covalent bonds between sulfur atoms in some R groups. Abundant in structural proteins
Quaternary (4)
proteins composed of more than one polypeptide, held together through hydrogen or ionic bonds (Page 37)
denaturation
a dramatic disruption
enzymes
proteins that speed rates of sepecific chemical reactions without being consumed in the process
nucleic acid
chemical units in a molecule (DNA) (RNA)
nucleotides
consists of a 5 carbon sugar
nitrogenous bases
nitrogen containing compounds (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine)
gene
a sequence of DNA
ATP
serves a vital role in carrying energy that is used in nearly all biological functions
cells
all organisms consist of these microscopic structures
cell membrane
seperates the living matter from the environment and limits its size
organelles
particular activities take place in the structures
stem cells
have the capacity to become any of a variety of specialty cells
cell theory
the idea that the cell is the fundamental unit of life
ribosomes
protein synthesis complexs consisting or RNA and protein.
vacuole
a large organlle that contains water in a plant cell.
cytoskeleton
helps to give the cell its shape
Cell Structure
Page 53
vesicles
small packages of proteins and other molecules surrounded by the membrane
rough endoplasmic reticulum
Many of the cells proteins are manufactured here. Have other compartments that house special enzymes that process these proteins and each compartment is connnected to a vescile
endomembrane system
series of compartments formed from highley folded membranes
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lipids are synthesized and modified and toxins are neutralized
Golgi apparatus
finishes processing and and sorts protiens for export out of the cell or into lysosomes
lysosomes
sacs that contain digestive enzymes
ribosomes
found in the cytoplasm and manufacture proteins
peroxisomes
single membrane bounded sacs present in all eukaryotic cells that contain several type of enzymes
mitochondria
extract energy from nurtrient rich molecules
cristae
folds of the innner membrane that contain enzymes that catalyze the bio chemical reactions that acquire energy
endosymbiont theory
says that complex cells formed as large nonnucealted cells engulfed in smaller simpler cells
istonic
when the surrounding fluid and cell interior are same in concentration
osmosis
movement of water across biological membranes by simple diffusion
concentration gradient
the natural tendency of a substance to move from where it is highley concentrated to where it is less so is called "moving down" or following its concentration gradient.
dynamic equilibrium
the point of equal movement back and forth
hypotonic
if a cell is placed in a solution in which the solute is lower than within the cell, water will enter the cell to dilute the higher solute concentration there and the cell swells
hypertonic
if a cell is placed in a solution in which the solute concentration is higher than it is inside the cell, water leaves the cell to dilute the higher solute concentration outside. The cell shrinks
turgor pressure
plant cells expand until their cell walls restrain their membranes. this is the resulting ridigity cause by the force of the water against the cell
facilitated diffusion
protein assists the transport of the molecule into the cell.
passive transport
this happens when a carrier protein provides transport to a molecule but does not expell energy in the process.
carrier protein
binds to a specific ion or molecule , which contorts a protein in a way that moves the cargo to the other face of the membrane, where it exits
active transport
happens when a carrier protein assists a molecule in transportation and expells energy in the process
exocytosis
transports large particles and fluids out of cells
endocytosis
allows cells to capture large molecules and fluids on its external surface and brings them into the cell.
transcytosis
combination of endo and exocytosis to move molecules from one side of cell to the other.
aerobic cellular respiration
refers to the biochemical pathways that extract energy from the bonds of nutrient molecules in the prescence of ooxygen
anaerobs
obtain energy in the abscence of oxygen by using different pathways that are reffered to as fermentation
gylcolysis
"Breaking Glucose"
aerobic respiration
refers to the entire breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide in the prescence of oxygen
glucose+oxygen ---- carbon dioxide+water+energy
phosphorylation
charging an ATP is done through this. The addition of a high energy phosphate group
Glycolysis
LOOK ON PAGE 131 FOR THE CYCLE!!!!!!!!
mitosis
process that forms two genetically identical cells from one
karyokinesis
aka mitosis - when the cell is activley dividing
cytokinesis
when other cell contents are distributed into the daughter cells
interphase
when the cell is seperating for cell division
G1 phase
critical checkpoint that determines a cells fate. called the restriction checkpoint. decides whether a cell goes on to divdie, die, or go into G0, or stops to repair DNA damage. this is the part of the cell cycle whos duration varies the most among different types of cells
G0 phase
Does not replicate or divide DNA in this stage. a cellular "time out"
S phase
time a great synthetic activity as teh cel undertakes the immense job of replicating the genetic material
G2 phase
the cell synthesizes more proteins. The DNA winds more tightly around it assosciated proteins, and this start of chromosome condensation signals impending mitosis
miotic spindle
spererates the chromosomes into two sets
chromatids
two identical copies if chromosomal material
centromere
chromatids are joined at a small region called this. It consists of repeated DNA sequences and special proteins
chromatin
the nucleic acids and proteins in the nucleus are generally called this
Prophase
the 1st stage of mitosis chromatin becomes visible as the DNA coils very tightly around chromosomal proteins. spindle apparatus forms
prometophase
nuclear envelope fragments. spindle fibers attatch to kineotochores
kineotochores
complex of proteins
metaphase
chromosomes align along equator of the cell
anaphase
sister chromatids seperate to opposite poles of the cell
telophase
nuclear membrane assembles around two daughter nuclei. chromosomes decondense. spindle disappears
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm into two cells
telomeres
resides in chromosome tips. chromosomes gradually shorten each time a cell divides. after about 50 divisions enough of this has been lost that molecular signals cause cell division to cease
telomerase
cells with a a shrinking telomere do not manufacture this enzyme. when cells to make this enzyme their telomeres stay long. They continually add DNA to their chromosome tips
stem cells
can divide and replensih tissue
contact inhibtion
refers to the inhibiting effect of cell crowding on cell division. lack of of this is one characteristic of cancer cells
purines
Adenine and guanine
complementary base pairs
A to T
G to C
pyrimidines
cytosine and thymine
antiparallel
head to tail arrangement
conservative
with one double helix specifying creation of a second double helix
dispersive
with a double helix shattering into peices that would then join with newly synthesized DNA pieces to form molecules