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209 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Organs
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Bodys largest structures
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Organ systems
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Collections of organs
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tissues
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simpler structures that also make up organs
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Cells
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even smaller units of tissues. The simplest structure that can support life.
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Organelles
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carry out specific functions in cells
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population
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two or more members of the same type of organism, or species living in the same place at the same time
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community
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includes the populaiton of different species in a particular region
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ecosystem
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include both the living and non living components of an area
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biospehere
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the parts of the planet that can support life and all of the organisms that live there
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molecules
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organized groups of cells
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biochemicals
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uniquely found in cells
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emergent properties
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functions that arise as complexity grows
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Arise from physical and chemical interactions among components. Ex milk, flour, sugar, butter, and chocolate become brownies-something not evident from the parts themselves |
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metabolism
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refers to the chemical reactions within cells that maintain life.
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synthesize
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build up
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degrade
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break down
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producers
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also called autotrophs extract energy from the nonliving environment
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consumers
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also called heterotrophs obtin energy by eating nutrients made by other organisms
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decomposers
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consumers that obtain nutrients from dead organisms
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homeostasis
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the ability to keep conditions constant. Keeps things moving smoothly
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species
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any group of organisms that can succesfully reproduce over several generations
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asexual reproduction
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offspring genetically identical to the parent
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unicellular
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single-celled. often produce asexually particularly if the living conditionds are ideal.
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sexual reproduction
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mixes genetic material usually from two individuals to form genetically unique offspring.
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irritability
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the tendency to respond immidealty to a stimuli. Ex a person touching a thorn and jerking back
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adaptation
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a response that develops over time.
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natural selection
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enhanced survival and reproduction success of certain individuals from a population based on inherited characteristics
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mutated
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changing of cells. provided the variation upon which natural selection acts
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taxonomy
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classifies life according to what we know about evolutionary realtionships of organisms
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Classify and describe organisms
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Domain
Kingdom Division (phylum) class order family genus species |
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hypothesis
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based on some oberservations\ or discovery. A prediction.
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experiment
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test the hypothesis. cofirms or refines the hypothesis
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Theory
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systematically organized body of knowledge that applies to a variety of situations
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epidemiology
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the study of disease related data from real life
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scientfici method
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a general way of thinking and of organizing and investigation. A framework in which to consider ideas and evidence in a way that can be repeated with the same results
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variable
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single factor. the cause of the observed effect
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control
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provides a basis for comparison
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double blind tests
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an experiment in which neither the participants or the researchers know who recieved the substance being evaluated and who recieved the plaebo
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placebo
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a stand in for a drug being tested. A sugar pill or a treatment already known to be effective
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periodic table
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a chart with elements arranged according to their composition and properties
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matter
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material that takes up space
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energy
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the ability to do work
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elements
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pure substances. A type of atom. There are 92 known naturally occuring and 17 synthetic ones.
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Bulk elements
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Elements required in large amounts. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
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Trace elements
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Required in small amounts. Important in ensuring that vital chemical reactions occur fast enough to sustain life.
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atom
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the smallest possible piece of an element that retains the characterisitics of the element.
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Protons
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determine the size and characterisitics of each atom. Carries a positive charge
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Nucleus
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centralized core
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electrons
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surround the nucleus. carries a negative charge
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neutrons
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subatomic particle. helps form a centralized core along with protons
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orbital
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the most likely location for an electron relative to its nucleus
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atomic number
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above the elements symbol and shows the number of protons in the atom which also establishes the identity of the atom.
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mass number
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reflects the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom
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isotopes
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an atom that has a variable number of neutrons. All have the same charge and chemical characteristics but different masses
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atomic mass
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average mass of its isotopes. presented beneath the elements.
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compound
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atoms of two or more elements often exist joined together
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molecule
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the smallest unit of a compound.
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diatomic
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consisting of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
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chemical reactions
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two or more molecules interact with eachother to yield different molecules. These reactions allow us to move, rebuild cells, manipulate energy, and generally make life possible
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reactants
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the starting materials shown in an equation on the left
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products
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the end results shown in an equation on the right
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organic molecules
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contain water and hydrogen. Organisms are mostly composed of this molecule
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macromolecules
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very large organic molecules
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energy shell
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the particular distance from the nucleus. The farther an electron is from the nucleus the more energy it has. Energy level also helps approximate an electrons location
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valence shell
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the outermost shell in an atom.
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octet rule
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the tendency to require eight electrons in the valence shell
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When Atoms Interact: Chemical Bonds
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READ! Page 20-24
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covalent bonds
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hold together most of the moelcules of life. These strong bonds form when two atoms share electrons. Strongest Bond
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nonpolar covalent bonds
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the electrons are shared equally. Ex. Methane
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polar covalent bonds
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electrons draw more towards on atoms nucleus than the other
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Polar
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there is a difference between opposite ends of the molecule, usually formed by opposite charges.
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electronegativity
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the tendency of an atom to attract electrons
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ionic bond
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a bond where electronegativity pulls an electron from the other atom. The two atoms then have opposite charges and attract. A strong bond but not as strong as covalent
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ion
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once an atom loses or gains electrons it has an electric charge and is called this.
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hyrdrogen bonds
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the opposite charges on two molecules attract and form this kind of bond
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Chapter 2
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STUDY!! Look at the drawings of the molecules.
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van der Waals attractions
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dynamic interactions between molecules or within molecules that occur when oppositly charged regions approach one another
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Hydrophobic
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if part of a molecule lacks any kind of charge it becomes this and cannot interact with water. Ex. a drop of oil in a glass of water (water fearing)
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Hydrophilic
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parts of molecules have charge and are attracted to water. (water loving)
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Cohesion
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The attraction between identical molecules, which accounts for waters constant rebonding
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adhesion
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forming of hydrogen bonds to many other compounds. Water does this also and is important in many biological procceses
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Fluidity
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the ability of a substance to flow. The constant changing of hydrgogen bonding is what makes water flow.
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imbibtion
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the tendency of substances to absorb water and swell. this accounts for waters adhesivness.
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solvent
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a chemial in which other chemicals, called solutes, dissolve,
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soltues
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chemicals that dissolve in another chemical called a solute
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solution
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consists of one or more chemicals dissolved in a solvent
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aqueous solution
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a solution that uses water as a solvent
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electrolytes
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dissolved ions that make up the vital fluids of organisms
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acids
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Substances that add more H+ to a solution
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bases
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substances that decrease the number of H+
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PH scale
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A system of measurement that is used to gauge how acidic or alkaline a solution is in terms of its H+ concentrations.
Look on Page 25 for PH scale |
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buffer system
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pairs of weak acids and bases. Maintain the pH of body fluids in vital range
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heat capacity
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the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of something. Ex. water
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carbon
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main component of the molecules that make up living systems
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hydorcarbons
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most basic organic molecule. Contain only hydrogen and carbon
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Functional groups
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atoms or groups of atoms that add functions to a moleculre by combining phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen to larger carbon skeletons
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monomers
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single-unit molecules
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polymers
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linked monomers.
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dehydration synthesis
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chemical reaction that joins to monomers into larger molecules ("made by losing water")
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Hydrolysis
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cells seperate monomers by adding water ("breaking with water") Much of what we call digestion is the realease of monomers through this reaction.
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carbohydrates
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consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen often in the proportion 1:2:1
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monosaccharides
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the smallest carbohydrates. differ from eachother by how many carbons they contain and how their atoms are bonded
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disaccharide
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forms when two monosacchardies link through dehydration synthesis.
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oligosaccharides
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moderatly sized carbohydrates often used by cells for identification and forming complex structures. Give cells unique functions and identity. Also important in enabling proteins called antibodies.
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glycoproteins and glycolipids
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on cell surfaces and important in immunity.
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polysaccharides
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complex carbphydrates found in food and in structural elements are made of this. They contain hundreds of glucose monomers. or modified sugars.
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cellulose
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long chains of glucose. Forms wood and parts of plant cell walls and its the most common organic compound in nature.
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Starch
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long chain of glucose. Familiar food component
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Chitin
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Second most common polysaccharide in nature. It forms the most flexible exoskeletons of insects, spiders, and crustaceans and form the cell wall of fungi
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lipids
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diverse molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Vital to life in many ways. Necessary for growth and utilization of some vitamins. They are hydrophobic and energy rich. Also speeds up nerve transmission due to cells rich in this molecule. Read Section 3.3
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Fatty acids
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simplest type of lipid in nature. long hydrocarbons of up to 36 carbon atoms with an acidic functional group at one end.
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saturation
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measure of hydrogen content
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saturated fatty acid
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contains all the hydrogen it possibly can which occurs when single bonds connect all the carbons. Page 34 (Figure 3.3)
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unsaturated fatty acids
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has one doulbe bond and polyunsaturated if it has more than one double bond. unsaturation causes the bonds to form kinks and spread their "tails" this allows lipids to be more fluid and produces and oily consistency at room temperature.
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Triglyceride
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consists of three fatty acids joined to a three carbon molecule called glycerol. Dehydration synthesis combines the fatty acids and glycerol releasing water. Commonly known as fat and is a complex way for cells to store energy.
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phospholipid
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fundamental molecule of membranes. Forms when enzymes replace one of the fatty acids in a triglyceride phosphate.
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phosphate
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oxygen rich and is highly negatively charged and therefore, hydrophilic.
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Sterols
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lipid molecules based on four interconnected carbon rings. additions and modifications of this strucute yeild hormones, vitamins, and cholesterol.
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Cholesterol
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vital for cells to maintain the fluidity of cell membranes and can maintain the fluidity of cell membranes and cn be modified to make other lipids, including the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen. Formed in the liver. Since it is hydrophobic , proteins must surround cholesterol to carry it through the bloodstream.
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testosterone and estrogen
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sex hormones
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Amino Acids
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Page 36 (Figure 3.6)
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carboxyl group
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(acid) a carbon atom double bonded to one oxygen and single bonded to another oxygen carrying a hydrgogen (COOH)
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amino group
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a nitrogen atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms (NH2)
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R group
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(aka sidechain) can be any of sevearl chemical groups
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Peptide Bond
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a carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with the nitrogen group of the other and forms this type of bond
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dipeptide
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two linked amino acids for a dipeptide bond
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tripeptide bond
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three amino acids joined together. larger chains with fewer than 100 amino acids are oligopeptides
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conformation
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as a protein is synthesized in a cell, it folds into a 3 dimensional structure called this.
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primary (1)
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structure or protein is just the amino aicd sequence of its polypeptide chain
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secondary (2)
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hydrogen bonds between parts of the peptide "backbone" form this
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Motifs
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as a result of secondary (2) and the folding of the polypeptide bonds these emerge. (Page 37)
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tertiary (3)
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proteins fold into their final structures through interactions between R groups and eachother or water.
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Disulfide bonds
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formation of covalent bonds between sulfur atoms in some R groups. Abundant in structural proteins
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Quaternary (4)
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proteins composed of more than one polypeptide, held together through hydrogen or ionic bonds (Page 37)
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denaturation
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a dramatic disruption
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enzymes
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proteins that speed rates of sepecific chemical reactions without being consumed in the process
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nucleic acid
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chemical units in a molecule (DNA) (RNA)
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nucleotides
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consists of a 5 carbon sugar
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nitrogenous bases
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nitrogen containing compounds (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine)
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gene
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a sequence of DNA
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ATP
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serves a vital role in carrying energy that is used in nearly all biological functions
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cells
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all organisms consist of these microscopic structures
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cell membrane
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seperates the living matter from the environment and limits its size
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organelles
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particular activities take place in the structures
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stem cells
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have the capacity to become any of a variety of specialty cells
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cell theory
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the idea that the cell is the fundamental unit of life
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ribosomes
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protein synthesis complexs consisting or RNA and protein.
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vacuole
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a large organlle that contains water in a plant cell.
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cytoskeleton
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helps to give the cell its shape
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Cell Structure
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Page 53
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vesicles
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small packages of proteins and other molecules surrounded by the membrane
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rough endoplasmic reticulum
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Many of the cells proteins are manufactured here. Have other compartments that house special enzymes that process these proteins and each compartment is connnected to a vescile
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endomembrane system
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series of compartments formed from highley folded membranes
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smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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lipids are synthesized and modified and toxins are neutralized
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Golgi apparatus
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finishes processing and and sorts protiens for export out of the cell or into lysosomes
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lysosomes
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sacs that contain digestive enzymes
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ribosomes
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found in the cytoplasm and manufacture proteins
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peroxisomes
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single membrane bounded sacs present in all eukaryotic cells that contain several type of enzymes
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mitochondria
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extract energy from nurtrient rich molecules
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cristae
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folds of the innner membrane that contain enzymes that catalyze the bio chemical reactions that acquire energy
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endosymbiont theory
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says that complex cells formed as large nonnucealted cells engulfed in smaller simpler cells
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istonic
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when the surrounding fluid and cell interior are same in concentration
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osmosis
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movement of water across biological membranes by simple diffusion
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concentration gradient
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the natural tendency of a substance to move from where it is highley concentrated to where it is less so is called "moving down" or following its concentration gradient.
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dynamic equilibrium
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the point of equal movement back and forth
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hypotonic
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if a cell is placed in a solution in which the solute is lower than within the cell, water will enter the cell to dilute the higher solute concentration there and the cell swells
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hypertonic
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if a cell is placed in a solution in which the solute concentration is higher than it is inside the cell, water leaves the cell to dilute the higher solute concentration outside. The cell shrinks
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turgor pressure
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plant cells expand until their cell walls restrain their membranes. this is the resulting ridigity cause by the force of the water against the cell
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facilitated diffusion
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protein assists the transport of the molecule into the cell.
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passive transport
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this happens when a carrier protein provides transport to a molecule but does not expell energy in the process.
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carrier protein
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binds to a specific ion or molecule , which contorts a protein in a way that moves the cargo to the other face of the membrane, where it exits
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active transport
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happens when a carrier protein assists a molecule in transportation and expells energy in the process
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exocytosis
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transports large particles and fluids out of cells
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endocytosis
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allows cells to capture large molecules and fluids on its external surface and brings them into the cell.
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transcytosis
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combination of endo and exocytosis to move molecules from one side of cell to the other.
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aerobic cellular respiration
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refers to the biochemical pathways that extract energy from the bonds of nutrient molecules in the prescence of ooxygen
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anaerobs
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obtain energy in the abscence of oxygen by using different pathways that are reffered to as fermentation
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gylcolysis
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"Breaking Glucose"
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aerobic respiration
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refers to the entire breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide in the prescence of oxygen
glucose+oxygen ---- carbon dioxide+water+energy |
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phosphorylation
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charging an ATP is done through this. The addition of a high energy phosphate group
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Glycolysis
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LOOK ON PAGE 131 FOR THE CYCLE!!!!!!!!
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mitosis
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process that forms two genetically identical cells from one
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karyokinesis
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aka mitosis - when the cell is activley dividing
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cytokinesis
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when other cell contents are distributed into the daughter cells
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interphase
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when the cell is seperating for cell division
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G1 phase
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critical checkpoint that determines a cells fate. called the restriction checkpoint. decides whether a cell goes on to divdie, die, or go into G0, or stops to repair DNA damage. this is the part of the cell cycle whos duration varies the most among different types of cells
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G0 phase
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Does not replicate or divide DNA in this stage. a cellular "time out"
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S phase
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time a great synthetic activity as teh cel undertakes the immense job of replicating the genetic material
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G2 phase
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the cell synthesizes more proteins. The DNA winds more tightly around it assosciated proteins, and this start of chromosome condensation signals impending mitosis
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miotic spindle
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spererates the chromosomes into two sets
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chromatids
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two identical copies if chromosomal material
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centromere
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chromatids are joined at a small region called this. It consists of repeated DNA sequences and special proteins
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chromatin
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the nucleic acids and proteins in the nucleus are generally called this
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Prophase
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the 1st stage of mitosis chromatin becomes visible as the DNA coils very tightly around chromosomal proteins. spindle apparatus forms
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prometophase
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nuclear envelope fragments. spindle fibers attatch to kineotochores
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kineotochores
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complex of proteins
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metaphase
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chromosomes align along equator of the cell
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anaphase
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sister chromatids seperate to opposite poles of the cell
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telophase
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nuclear membrane assembles around two daughter nuclei. chromosomes decondense. spindle disappears
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cytokinesis
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division of the cytoplasm into two cells
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telomeres
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resides in chromosome tips. chromosomes gradually shorten each time a cell divides. after about 50 divisions enough of this has been lost that molecular signals cause cell division to cease
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telomerase
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cells with a a shrinking telomere do not manufacture this enzyme. when cells to make this enzyme their telomeres stay long. They continually add DNA to their chromosome tips
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stem cells
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can divide and replensih tissue
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contact inhibtion
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refers to the inhibiting effect of cell crowding on cell division. lack of of this is one characteristic of cancer cells
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purines
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Adenine and guanine
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complementary base pairs
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A to T
G to C |
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pyrimidines
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cytosine and thymine
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antiparallel
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head to tail arrangement
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conservative
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with one double helix specifying creation of a second double helix
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dispersive
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with a double helix shattering into peices that would then join with newly synthesized DNA pieces to form molecules
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