Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
5 defining Characteristics of Chordates
|
-notochord (body support, muscle attachment, embryonic stage, verts: replaced my vertebral column)
-dorsal hollow nerve cord (cerebral nervous system, either ventral to notochord or in notochord/ vertebral column, verts: anterior end enlarge to form brain) -pharyngeal pouches/slits -endostyle (part of feeding aparatus or thyroid gland) -postanal tail (skeletal & muscular elements, always present embryonically) |
|
|
Chordate body plan
|
-organ system
-triploblastic -eucoelomate -bilateral symmetry -cephalization in most -segmentation -deuterostomes |
|
|
Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicata)
|
-sea squirt, tunicates
*ascidian larvae -marine -filter feeders= water in incurrent siphon, out excurrent siphon -"tail cord"= larval stage notochord found in larva tail -all characteristics present during larval stage; loose notochord, nerve cord, postanal tail in development |
|
|
Subphylum Cephalpchordata
|
-lancelets, amphioxus
-"head chord"= notochord reaches anteriorly into head -29 species -marine, partially buried in sand/substrate -dioecious -filter feeders= water exits feeding apparatus through atriopore -adults have all 5 characteristcs (nerve cord slightly enlarged anteriorly) -noticeable segments |
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
|
-fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
*ammocoete -herbivores, carnivores, omnivores -marine, freshwater, terrestrial -dioecious -5 characteristics present in some point of life cycle -vertebral column nerve cord surrounded by vertebral column hollow, jointed, wither bone or cartilage vertebrae= make up column, protect nerve cord muscle attachment, structure (endoskeleton) -nerve cord= enlarged anteriorly into tripartite brain paired nerves, complex heads, specialized sensory organs cranium= brain case of bone or cartilage -segmented muscles= myomeres (muscle segments) -closed circulatory system ventral heart -efficient respiratory system -paired, usually jointed apendages |
|
|
Superclass Agnatha
|
-"without jaw"
-hagfish, lampreys, ostracoderms lamprey larva= ammocoete= similar to amphioxous, filter feeders in fresh water -don't have scales, don't have paired fins -skeletons made of cartilage -rudimentary vertibrae -Class Myxini, Class Petromyzontida |
|
|
Class Myxini
|
-hagfish, slime hags
-marine, deep ocean -scavengers -nearly blind, well developed senses of touch and smell -glands along body that release milky fluid when disturbed that turns into slime when contact with water= predator deterent -teeth made of keratin on tongue for tearing food -tie themselves in knots to create more leverage for tearing |
|
|
Class Petromyzontida
|
-lampreys
-"stone sucker" -adult life spent in ocean, freshwater to breed -larval form= ammocoete= filter feeder -adult= ectoparasite on fish -keratinized teeth used to scrape through fish integument |
|
|
Superclass Gnathostomata
|
-"with jaw"
-jawed, paired fins tetrapods= 4 limbs -includes most of vertebrates |
|
|
Class Chondrichthyes
|
-cartilaginous fishes
sharks, skates, rays, chimera -predators -heterocercal tail= codal fin has unequal lobes, vertebral column turns up -placoid scales= embedded in tough skin, backward pointing spine, reduce drag -well developed sensory organs olfactory organs can detect 1km away system of electroreceptors= detect electric fields of other animals, mostly in head= ampullae of Lorenzini (sharks) lateral line system |
|
|
lateral line system
|
-all fishes
-system of paired pores along animal -contains mechanoreceptors to detect vibrations in water |
|
|
Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Class Actinopterygii |
ray-finned fishes
-migratory fish *fresh water eels= live in fresh water as adults, spawn in ocean= catadromous ("running down"), spawn in Sargasso Sea *salmon= live in ocean as adults, spawn in freshwater= anadromous ("running up"), Atlantic salmon spawn multiple times, Pacific salmon spawn once and die -homocercal tail= symmetrical -scales *cycloid= thin, flexible, overlapping *ctenoid= posterior spines, thin, flexible, overlap *ganoid= diamond shape, not overlapping *none (eels, cat fish) -swim bladder= buoyancy, holds gases to give fish same density as water |
|
|
Osteichthyes
Class Sarcopterygii |
lobe-finned fish
-8 extant species -diphycercal tail= symmetrical, tapers to point -lungfish= 6 species, freshwater, closest living relatives to tetrapods, lungs= modified swim bladder *Australian lungfish= only one lung, rely on gills *other specie can live out of water if needed, burrow in ground -coelacanths *deep sea, nocturnal, up to 2m long *relict species= surviving remnants of a once thriving species, now only few left in small area *thought to be extinct 70mil yrs ago |
|
|
tetrapods
|
-4 limbed verts
-reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals -began/evolved in shallow freshwater systems, gradually moved onto land *gills>lungs, stronger bones& muscles |
|
|
Class Amphibia
|
-frogs, toads, salamanders, caecilians
-"of both kinds of life"= reliant on both aquatic and terrestrial environments -ectotherms, carnivorous (insects) -thin skin and eggs must be kept moist -larvae usually have gills & often do cutaneous respiration, adults have lungs |
|
|
Class Amphibia
caecilians |
-loss of limbs, long bodies
-burrowing or aquatic animals -mostly blind -eggs must be in moist ground |
|
|
Class Amphibia
salamanders |
-terrestrial or aquatic, some can switch
-lungs or gills or both -axolotl & mud puppies= paedomorphosis= "child form", retain juvenile characteristics throughout life, keep external gills (larval feature) |
|
|
Class Amphibia
frogs & toads |
-modified for jumping, indirect development, adults have lungs
-toads= shorter legs, stouter bodies, thicker skin -frogs= longer legs, thinner skin, slender bodies |
|
|
amniotes
|
*reptiles, mammals, birds
thicker skin, no gills, stronger jaws, bigger brain amniotic egg= resists desication -shell= hard & mineralized, leathery, or lost altogether -amnion= filled w/ amniotic fluid (mostly water) for cushioning and stable environment -allantois= gas exchange, metabolic wastes from embryo -chirion= highly vascularized, protect entire embryo, becomes part of placenta -albumin= egg white, protective, water & protein -yolk sac= nutrient storage |
|
|
Class Reptilia
|
lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodilians, dinosaurs
-paraphyletic grouping (birds not included) -nonavian reptiles -ectotherms |
|
|
Class Reptilia
turtles |
-marine, freshwater, terrestrial
-most omnivorous -shell= dorsal: carapace, ventral: plastron, outer layer of keratin & inner layer of bone, fused ribs & vertebrae -oviporous (lay eggs), burry eggs, temp of substrate determines sex -odor & sight oriented |
|
|
Class Reptilia
lizards |
-widely distributed, fewer in cold climates, one marine species
-most carnivores favoring insects -thick skin= retain water -oviporous or viviporous -visually oriented |
|
|
Class Reptilia
snakes |
(same order as lizards)
-second loss of limbs, loss of pectoral & pelvic girdle -kinetic skull= skull w/ movable joints, bones loosely bound together -predators, carnivores -most oviporous, some viviporous & some ovoviviporous -odor oriented, detect vibrations -pit organs= sensing heat, between nostrils & eye, detect heat coming off of prey -subduing prey= swallowing whole, constiction (squeezing), inject prey with venom |
|
|
Class Reptilia
crocodilians |
crocodiles, alligators, caymins
-ancient group, most closely related to birds -predators, carnivores -marine, freshwater -oviporous, temp of substrate determines sex of offspring *alligator: broader snout, 4th tooth on lower jaw not visible when mouth closed *crocodile: narrow snout, 4th tooth on lower jaw visible protruding upward when mouth closed |
|
|
Amniote division
|
1. anapsids= skull has no opening in temporal region, early amniotes, turtles (developed secondarily)
2. diapsids= skull has 2 openings behind orbit on temporal region on each side, reptiles (birds & dinosaurs included, turtles excluded), some extant animals have lost 2nd hole 3. synapsids= skull has one opening behind orbit in temporal region on each side, mammals "-apsid"= arches openings serve as place for muscle attachment for jaw |
|
|
Class Aves
|
Birds
-evolved from little carnivorous dinosaurs w/ feathers -feathers originally for insulation, developed flight later -feathered, forelimbs modified into wings -keratinized beak, no teeth -oviporous -visually oriented, large optic lobes of brain *pecten= organ in eye attached to retina, highly vascularized, provide extra nutrients & oxygen to eye -sense of hearing well developed, not smell or taste -feeding habits *insectivores, carnivores, nectar feeders, herbivores, omnivores *beaks modified for feeding |
|
|
Bird flight skeleton modifications
|
1. fused & reduced phalanges
2. keel projecting from sternum= muscle attachment of flight muscles 3. reduced caudal vertebrae 4. pneumatized bones= hollow bones braced with struts & extension of air sacs for strength |
|
|
feathers
|
homologous w/ reptile scales
made of keratin feather bud originates in epidermis and invaginates down into dermis to become feather follicle -quill/calamus= hollow at base, emerges from follicle -shaft/rachis -barbs= all form vane -barbules *feathers have to be molted= gradual or partial, triggered by seasonal hormonal changes |
|
|
wings
|
-provide lift (proximal part) & thrust (distal part) without drag (cambered shape reduces drag
*aspect ratio= ratio of length to width 1. elliptical wings= maneuverability & tight spaces -low aspect ration= short, broad -resist stalling -chickadee 2. high aspect ratio wings= feeding during flight, migrating long distances -longer wings w/ pointier tip, resist drag -efficiency in high speed flight -swallows, gulls, hummingbirds 3. dynamic soaring wings= taking advantage of wind currents over ocean -extremely high aspect ration= really long & narrow -conserving energy, gliding -albatros 4. high-lift wings= carrying heavy loads -medium aspect ratio -really pronounced camber -provide lift at low speeds -well-designed for maneuverability -hawks, eagles, owls |
|
|
Class Mammalia
|
-about 5400 species
-endothermic, hair -highly developed brain & nervous system -females have mammary glands that produce milt -movement of jaw joint bones into inner ear -smaller mammals have to consume more food per body weight than larger animals |
|
|
Hair
|
-provides insulation, protection, sensory info
-color & pattern provide camouflage, warning info, social info -composed of keratin -follicle originates in epidermis and goes into dermis, new cells grow in base of follicle and push older cells out remaining attached, hair continuously grows until it reaches certain length and falls out when new hair begins -most animals molt hair seasonally -vibrissae= whiskers, hairs modified for sensory function -quills= hairs modified for protection hair structure -medulla= central pore -cortex= layer of cells surrounding medulla, contains pigment -cuticle= translucent layer made of small scales |
|
|
Sweat glands
|
scattered over body surface or limited area
-eccrine sweat glands= open directly onto skin surface, thermoregulatory function -apocrine sweat glands= open into hair follicles, produce fatty sweat, thermoregulation or reproductive events/behavior or emotional sweat, human body odor |
|
|
Scent glands
|
communication
-marking territory, warning or defense, attracting mates -location depends on taxon *skunks= opens into anus, can eject scent up tp 3m |
|
|
Sebaceous glands
|
-open into hair follicle or skin surface
-spread over body -sebum= oily/waxy substance, lubricate skin, line hair shafts |
|
|
Mammary glands
|
-all female mammals, all male mammals in rudimentary form
-secrete milk -milk line=developing embryo had 2, as development proceeds part of milk line fades away and remaining part becomes glands |
|
|
Monotremes
|
egg-laying mammals (oviporous)
-platypus, echidnas -Australia, New Guinea -no teeth, modified snout w/ leathery sheath -males have spurs on ankles for fighting and defense (platypus: venomous spurs) -eggs: 13-15mm, leathery shell *platypus= incubate in burrow *echidna= incubate in pouch -young drink milk from skin surface secreted by mammary glands |
|
|
Marsupials
|
pouched animals
-viviporous -270 species, most extant in Australia -young have short gestation period= short time spent in uterus= very underdeveloped *crawls int pouch and latches onto nipple to continue growth= long lactation period -"yolk-type" placenta= limited nutrition supply |
|
|
Placentals
|
all other viviporous mammals
-long gestation period, usually shorter lactation -true placenta= offspring can obtain nutrients directly from mother |
|
|
placenta
|
organ that connects fetus to uterine wall, provides connection to nutrients
|
|
|
Herbivore
|
plant eaters
-mammals: extremely long digestive tract because cellulose in plants is hard to digest, bacteria in tract helps digest cellulose, almost constant food intake -rabbits: coprophagy= ingest their own feces so they can get all nutrients out that may have been missed the first time through |
|
|
Carnivore
|
meat eaters
consume herbivores and other carnivores -mammals: shorter digestive tract, mostly protein, can go long periods without eating, eat a lot when they do eat |
|
|
Omnivores
|
eat everything
-mammals: digestive tract medium length to balance out different substance digestion |
|
|
Detritivores
|
eat detritus (decaying organic matter)
-earthworms, millipedes, salbugs, hagfish -scavengers= eat larger forms of detritus (vultures, hyenas) |
|
|
Filter-feeding/Suspension-feeding
|
aquatic animals
-water current brings food to animals -food captured on mucus (bivalves, sea squirts, polychaetes) or filtering devices (sponges, basking sharks, baylene whales) |
|
|
Deposit feeding
|
earthworms, some polychaetes
-eating detritus that develops on or in substrate -some use appendages, some ingest substrate |
|
|
Fluid feeders
|
vampire bat, mosquito, leeches, fleas
-injest blood or other body fluids -endoparasites ether feied on nutrients in digestive tract or suck blood from inside digestive tract |
|
|
Bulk feeding
|
-feed on food masses
-beaks, teeth, jaws -shredding, scraping, tearing -mastication= chewing, tearing, crushing |
|
|
Digestive Steps
|
1. Ingestion= taking food into body
2. Digestion= process of breaking down large biomolecules so they can be absorbed and used by body (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) 3. Absorption= absorb digested biomolecules, specialized cells lining digestive tracts take in bits of biomolecules 4. Transportation= cells w/ biomolecules take in circulatory system for distribution throughout body, animals without circulatory system use diffusion 5. Molecules put to use= energy, storage for later use, growth, repair & maintenance, reproduction |
|
|
Intracellular digestion
|
poriferans, protozoans
-digest food inside cells |
|
|
extracellular digestion
|
-digest food outside cells, larger masses
-cnidarians&turbellarians= both intracellular and extracellular -alimentary canal= system for food to travel through, lumen (empty space in tube) w/ specialized cells lining canal -most taxa only extracellular -one way flow through |
|
|
Mechanical digestion
|
chunks of food chewed/churned up & mixed with water and mucus= slurry of food pieces= chyme
|
|
|
Chemical digestion
|
use enzymes to break down particles
-each enzyme breaks down molecules into smallest form= hydrolysis (addition of water to break down particles) |
|
|
Digestive system parts
|
1. mouth
2. pharynx 3. esophagus 4. stomach 5. small intestine 6. pancreas (verts only) 7. liver 8. gallbladder 9. large intestine 10. rectum |
|
|
Mouth
|
*mechanical & chemical digestion
buccal cavity mouthparts -tongue (manipulating food, swallowing, sensory functions, olfactory, food capture) salivary glands -enzymes= amylase= mammals, breaks down starch -mucus= swallowing -poisons= quiet prey -anticoagulants= blood suckers |
|
|
Pharynx
|
*no digestion
digestive passageway meets respiratory passageway -swallowing reflex= makes sure food stays on path -soft pallet temporarily closes off nasal cavity -tongue pushes food back -epiglottis= flap temporarily closes off trachea |
|
|
Esophagus
|
*no digestion
transport only -birds, annelids, insects= far end of esophagus expanded into crop= food storage -birds: crop= softens grains and seeds -sphincter= passageway open/closed by muscles |
|
|
Stomach
|
*mechanical & chemical digestion
digestion, food storage -humans: main site of digestion of proteins -carnivorous& omnivorous= stomach glands produce pepsin, HCl (kill anything swallowed whole, kill bacteria, pH 2), enzymes, mucus (protect stomach lining from acid) -herbivore: birds & oligochaets= muscular gizzard to crush food, insect= chitinous proventriculous, inverts= digestive diverticula (pouches at base of stomach that secrete mucus and enzymes) |
|
|
Small intestine
|
*mechanical & chemical digestion
where most digestion occurs -insect= midgut -most absorption of nutrients into cells -mammals: long in herbivores, short in carnivores -typhosole= earthworm, increase surface area, infolding of intestine -longitudinal or spiral folds to increase surface area (shark) -villi= finger-like projections of tissue lining lumen to increase surface area (birds, mammals) microvilli= microscopic projections on individual cells -lipase= enzyme that digests lipids *duodenum= beginning, receives food from stomach *jejunum= absorbs nutrients in water *ileum= end, absorption |
|
|
Pancreas
|
only in verts
secretes enzymes into duodenum |
|
|
Liver
|
produces bile and delivers to duodenum
-bile= contains water, bile pigments, bile salts *bile salts= digestion of lipids *bile pigments= waste products from old erythrocytes -immune system= stores biomolecules, cleans up toxins & wastes (hepatopancreas= liver/pancreas combined in arthropods) |
|
|
Gallbladder
|
store bile from liver until needed in duodenum
|
|
|
Large Intestine
|
-secum= pouch/sidepocket, harbors bacteria or protozoans that help digest cellulose, herbivores
*cellulase *cecum reduced in carnivores and herbivores -colon= consolidation of leftover wastes and solids, water reabsorbed into body, formation of feces *human: bacteria feed on leftover carbs -rectal glands= insects, used to reabsorb water |
|
|
Rectum
|
end of colon, feces stored until it can be ejected
|
|
|
Peritoneum
|
membranous layer of epithelium in the abdominal cavity, lines organs and inner body wall
-parietal peritoneum= lines abdominal cavity -visceral peritoneum= lines organs in abdominal cavity -peritoneal cavity= part of coelom -mesentary= peritoneum that holds organs in place by attaching to body wall |
|
|
Pericardium
|
sac around heart, both lining and space
|
|
|
Pleuroperitoneal cavity
|
-part of coelom
-contains lungs -amphibians |
|
|
Pleura
|
lining lungs and lung cavity
-visceral pleura= lines lungs -perietal pleura= lines lung cavity -pleural cavity= part of coelom, 2 separate cavities, house lungs |
|
|
Asexual reproduction
|
-one parent
-no fertilization of gametes -all offspring are clones -regeneration, fragmentation, budding (sea star, Hydra) -advantage: large # offspring in short time, constant environment |
|
|
Sexual reproduction
|
-2 parents
-fertilization, gametes -genetic variability in offspring (earthworm, spider, bugs) -monoecious or dioecious -advantage: genetic variability, adaption |
|
|
Parthenogenesis
|
an unfertilized egg can grow up to become an individual
-asexual: one parent w/ no fertilization -sexual: gametes involved, sperm can activate eggs but have no invlvement in development *whiptail lizard= haploid females |
|
|
Reproductive strategies
|
-cyclical/seasonal= allow for better chance of offspring survival
-semelparity= animals reproduce once and die (salmon, insects), all resources into one reproductive effort, animals w// low survivability -iteroparity= live to reproduce repeatedly (most verts) |
|
|
Reproductive patterns
|
-external fertilization= eggs, fertilized by sperm after released by female, produce large # zygotes and hope some viable offspring (aquatic inverts, fish)
-internal fertilization= eggs fertilized before being released from female, need moist environment in body (terrestrial animals) |
|
|
Oviparous
|
egg birth, eggs laid outside body (birds)
-embryo develops inside egg but outside female body -some animals lay eggs and leave them, others fare for young throughout growth, others leave provisions so they can care for themselves |
|
|
Ovoviviparous
|
"egg live birth", eggs retained in body until birth, embryo develops in egg in female, embryo receives nourishment from yolk (some sharks, gastropods)
|
|
|
Viviparous
|
eggs retained in female body, receives nourishment directly from placental connections (human, scorpion)
|
|
|
Urogenital system
|
verts: some parts with excretory/urinary system
|
|
|
Mammalian male reproduction
|
-testes= seminiferous tubules= spermatazoans produced, testosterone production
-scrotum= testes stored outside abdominal cavity, allow sperm to stay cooler -epididymis= storage point for mature spermatazoans -vas deferens= tube into abdominal cavity, sperm to urethera -urethera= connect reproductive/urinary -penis >seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands= add secretion that provide nutrients, maintain pH balance, lubrication |
|
|
Mammalian female reproduction
|
-ovary= egg (ova) produced, estrogen produced (both males and females produce testosterone and estrogen)
-oviduct= egg moved by cilia, where fertilization occurs -uterus= where embryo develops= uterine horns, uterine body, cervix (opening of uterus), vagina (birth canal) |
|
|
Determination of sex
|
-sex chromosomes: mammals, in gametogenesis each gamete has one set of chromosomes, male sperm determines sex
-sex chromosomes: birds, females determine sex of offspring -temperature= alligators: egg in colder sand become female and hotter sand become male, turtles: colder sand become male and hotter sand become female -behavior *fish: groups with one male and several females, male dies and largest female becomes male *slipper limpet= marine gastropod, all born male, become female if alone for too long, males pile on top of each other w/ female on bottom *green spoon worm= (Echiura) no sex at birth, if meets female in first 3 weeks> male, doesn't meet female in first 3 weeks> male |
|
|
Finding a mate
|
-androecium= "small man room"= space in green spoon worm female reproductive system where male lives after being inhaled by female
-anglerfish= deep ocean, females larger than males, once a male finds a female he bites into her underbody and fuses with her, systems fuse as well |
|
|
Circulation
|
transport of materials throughout animal's body w/ fluids
-nutrients, wastes, gases, hormones, enzymes -small, flat animals do not need circulatory system because they can rely on diffusion -insects do not use circulatory system for gas exchange= use tracheal system (respiration) |
|
|
Body Fluids
|
-intracellular fluid (ICF)= all fluid within cells of animals surrounding organelles, water w/ various solutes
-extracellular fluid (ECF)= outside cells, mostly water w/ substances dissolved in it, protect cells, move material through body *closed circulatory system: blood plasma= liquid in blood vessels (noncellular), interstitial fluid= fluid between cells *open circulatory system: hemolymph= mix of blood plasma and interstitial fluid, does jobs of both |
|
|
Vert Blood
|
-blood plasma= water, gases, dissolved solids (wastes, enzymes, hormones, glucose)
-erythrocytes= r.b.c., carrying oxygen -leukocytes= w.b.c., immune system -clotting factors= platelets or thrombocytes |
|
|
Open circulatory system
|
-heart pumps blood (hemolymph) into arteries> cavities
-hemocoels= cavities for mixing and transporting hemolymph |
|
|
Closed circulatory system
|
-heart pumps blood
-arteries carry blood away from heart -capillaries= exchange of materials -veins take blood back to heart |
|
|
Single loop circulation
|
*fish
-blood makes one circuit atrium> ventricle> gills (pick up oxygen)> dorsal aorta> capillaries (exchange of materials)> veins> sinus venosus (receives blood from veins)> atrium |
|
|
Double-loop circulation
|
-pulmonary circuit= goes to lungs to pick up oxygen
-systemic circuit= delivers blood/oxygen to body *amphibians (slight mixing of oxygenated & deoxygenated blood) right atrium> ventricle> lungs> left atrium> ventricle> body> right atrium *mammals (complete separation of oxygenated & deoxygenated blood) right atrium> right ventricle> lungs> left atrium> left ventricle> aorta> arteries> capillaries> veins> vena cava> right atrium |
|
|
Heart
|
muscle
coronary arteries & veins -arteries= branch off of aorta, supply blood/oxygen to heart -veins= remove used blood from heart back to system |
|
|
Blood vessels
arteries |
have to withstand a lot of pressure
-thick walls, somewhat elastic -smooth muscle tissue= constrict to retract= retract to dilate open= divert blood to where needed -arterioles= small arteries, further from heart |
|
|
Blood vessels
capillary beds |
network of capillaries, really thin
-exchange materials= result of blood pressure= high pressure at start of capillaries forces fluid through gaps between cells of think wall of capillary= result in high concentration of proteins further down that draws in material from interstitial fluid |
|
|
Blood vessels
veins |
not under pressure
-thinner walls, less elasticity, blood has to be assisted through by valves & skeletal muscles -venules= small versions of veins |
|
|
placenta
umbilical vein |
connecting organ between fetus and mother, gas exchange, nutrient supply
attaches placenta to fetal liver, blood to heart |
|
|
ductus venosus
|
get oxygen rich-blood from placenta to vena cava
connects umbilical vein to vena cava at liver |
|
|
foramen ovale
|
hole in fetus heart between left and right atria, allows blood to bypass lungs
|
|
|
ductus arteriosus
|
connection between aorta and pulmonary trunk, connecting vein, bypass lungs and send to body
*becomes ligament as adult= ligamentum arteriosum |
|
|
Cutaneous respiration
|
*poriferans, cnidarians
gas exchange occurs across cuticle through diffusion, small animals that don't need respiratory system |
|
|
Tracheal system
|
*insects, myriapods
system of tubules that branch throughout animals body -tracheoles= small tubes, filled with fluid, where gas exchange takes place, materials into/out of tracheaa |
|
|
Gills/Brachia
|
*fish, echinoderms
aquatic only -external gills= extensions of skin, branchial tufts (axolotl), parapodia -internal gills= often inside pharyngeal cavity (fish, aquatic insects, sea cucumbers) |
|
|
Lungs
|
internal cavity w/ well developed capillary network (verts)
*Frogs -positive pressure breathing= fill lungs by forcing air into lungs= lowers buccal cavity to take air in from nostrils, close nostrils and shrink buccal cavity forcing air into lungs *Birds -negative pressure breathing= pulling air into lungs= air sacs connected to lungs (no gas exchange), parabronchi (system of tubes in lungs, gas exchange) *Mammals -negative pressure breathing -inhaled air enters pharynx> glottis> larynx> trachea -bronchi= branches of trachea to lungs -bronchioles= branches of bronchi -alveolar ducts= branches of bronchioles -alveoli= sacs where alveolar ducts open to, gas exchange, surrounded by tight capillary network |
|
|
Homeostasis
|
constant internal state, stable internal conditions (in changing external conditions)
-salt & water balance, regulate pH levels, keep temp within functional range |
|
|
Osmoregulation
|
maintain optimal salt/water balance
*salt= various solutes in body |
|
|
Osmoconformers
|
most marine inverts, salt/water balance of animal same as salt/water balance of environment (sea water)
-cannot regulate balance themselves |
|
|
Methods of osmoregulation
freshwater fish |
-saltier than environment, higher solute concentration in fish
1. scales & mucus= make fish almost waterproof to prevent water from diffusing in 2. kidneys= form large amounts of dilute urine, salts absorbed back into body 3. food 4. salt-absorbing cells= specialized cells in gills, take up sodium from environment into blood stream against concentration gradient (active transport) |
|
|
Methods of osmoregulation
salt water fish (bony marine fish) |
-environment saltier than fish, need to prevent drying out from excess water loss
1. drink sea water= salt to intestine and back to gills 2. salt-secreting cells= salt out of body at gills through cells 3. kidneys= small amount of concentrated urine 4. feces |
|
|
Methods of osmoregulation
sharks (cartilaginous marine fish) |
-equilibrium with environment actively
-urea= contained in kidneys, spreads in blood and tissue= maintain equilibrium with environment |
|
|
Methods of osmoregulation
terrestrial animals |
-risk water loss and drying out
-evaporation from body surfaces & respiratory surfaces, urine, feces= cause water loss 1. drink fresh water 2. food 3. retain metabolic water= water produced in cellular respiration/running metabolism |
|
|
Excretory organs
|
maintain salt/water balance, remove wastes, regulate pH levels
-tubules= fluid enters at one end (lumen), fluid modified as it goes through, whatever is left at end is excreted as urine, tubule wall allows for fluid modification by moving stuff across wall |
|
|
Kidney
|
nephron= functional unit of kidney, tubules
-filtration= beginning of nephron taking up fluid from capillaries (general) -reabsorption= selecting specific fluids needed in the body and absorbing them back into body -secretion= additional molecules moved into nephron to be removed from body (toxins, drugs, excess salts) *filtration happens where Bowman's capsule meets glomerulus *glomerulus= bundle of capillaries *reabsorption & secretion occur in proximal & distal convoluted tubules and Loop of Henle *collecting duct= end of nephron, where multiple nephrons meet and excess fluids go to ureter |
|
|
Thermoregulation
|
regulation of temp balance
-usually between 0 and 40 C -enzymes are partly responsible for temp range -ectothermic= heat source external to animal, most animals, environment used to regulate temp (reptiles, insects) -endotherms= heat source inside animal, metabolism, muscular contractions (birds, mammals) -some have characteristics of both ectotherm & endotherm (bees, swordfish) |
|
|
Nervous System
|
Central Nervous System (CNS)
-brain, nerve cord/spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System -everything not in CNS -sensory & motor nerves |
|
|
nerve
|
bundle of axons and connective tissue
-cell bodies located in ganglia or CNSq |
|
|
neurons
|
-excitatory= soma receives message from dendrites and send message down axon to next cell
-inhibitory= soma receives message to not react 1. motor neuron= efferent neuron= signal in CNS sent out to some part of body to tell it to do something, PNS 2. sensory neuron= afferent neuron= receive info from body and send to CNS, PNS 3. interneurons= connect other neurons to each other, all located in CNS |
|
|
Neurons generate signal
|
-action potential= large, rapid electrical signal that sends nerve impulse
-unequal distribution of ions in resting cell, cell is polarized -resting membrane potential= difference in charges on either side of cell membrane (-70mV most animals) -stimulus received= gated channels in membrane open= allows sodium in= brief decrease in polarity= depolarized -channels close, back to original membrane potential= repolarization -big enough depolarization causes action potential= nerve impulse moves down axon -neurotransmitters at end of axon= chemicals that send nerve impulse message to next cell |
|
|
axon
|
-synaptic knob= synaptic vesicles full of neurotransmitters
-synapse= gap between synaptic knob and dendrite of next cell, filled with interstitial fluid -presynaptic neuron -postsynaptic neuron |
|
|
Brain
|
-brain stem= where spinal cord and brain meet
-medulla oblongata= juncture of brain and spinal cord, control heart rate and respiration -pons= passageway for nerve impulses -cerbellum= involuntary activities such as motor coordination and equilibrium, compare desired movement w/ actual movement, more highly developed in more active animals -thalamus= relay center, pass sensory info on -hypothalamus= maintaining homeostasis, under thalamus -cerebrum= voluntary movements, conscious perception of senses, cognitive processes, memory, divided into lobes and hemispheres -corpus callosum= allows two halves of cerebrum to communicate |
|
|
Cranial nerves
|
set of nerves that arise directly in brain, part of PNS
-12 pairs -sensory, motor, or bith (*nerves originating in spinal cord= spinal nerves) |
|
|
Endocrine System
|
-internal communication= slower working and longer lasting effects than nervous system
-collection of glands and cells that secrete hormones -metabolism , water balance, reproduction, growth & development, stress reactions -all animals produce hormones 1. endocrine glands= glands throughout body that secrete hormones into body fluids 2. hormones= chemical messengers, secreted into body fluids to locations they need to affect, trigger biological responses 3. target cells= cells that respond biologically to hormones, have hormone receptors to receive particular hormones and respond |
|
|
hypothalamus
|
endocrine gland in brain, secretes hormones that regulate pituitary gland
|
|
|
pituitary gland/ hypophysis
|
endocrine gland in brain, secretes hormones that regulate other glands
|
|
|
thyroid gland
|
endocrine gland in neck, secretes hormones that regulate development and maturation
-amphibians: regulate metamorphasis -mammals: |
|
|
adrenal glands
|
on top of kidneys, "fight-or-flight" hormones, response to stress
-adrenaline & noradrenaline -increase heart rate, redirect blood supply toward brain & muscles & heart, redirect away from less necessary organs -steroid hormones (cortisol) |
|
|
pancreas
|
-endocrine & non-endocrine functions
-produces digestive enzymes -produces insulin= encourages cells to take glucose up out of blood stream |
|
|
gonads (ovaries & testes)
|
-endocrine & non-endocrine functions
-estrogen & testosterone= steroid hormones, growth and development, reproductive processes |
|
|
pineal gland
|
-brain
-melatonin= regulate annual and daily rhythms, secreted in response to darkness |
