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141 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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path that blood travels
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heart, artery, arterioles, capillary, venule, vein
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vein vs. artery
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VEIN= lowest pressure, carries blood to the heart. ARTERY= carry blood away from the heart (high pressure)
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capillaries
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smallest vessels, site of gas exchange, gives O2 to tissues, pickup CO2,
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precapillary sphincters
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control blood flow to capillary bed
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movement of blood through veins
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VALVES= prevent backflow, SKELETAL MUSCLE= contract and squeeze blood up legs, BREATHING= inhale inc. size of chest and dec. size of abd. (thorasic pressure < abd)
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blood vessel problems
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aneurysm=artery weakened/swells, could rupture/cause blood clot. varicose veins=valves dont work/ blood pools in vein making it bulge. blood clots
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anatomy of the heart
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MYOCARDIUM-muscle of heart, ATRIA-upper chambers, VENTRICLES-lower chambers, ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES-b/w each atrium and ventricle (bicuspid, tricuspid), SEMILUNAR VALVE-b/w each ventricle and artery(aortic and pulmonary)
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pulmonary circuit
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(right side)(low O2) inferior/sup. vena cava, r. atrium, tricuspid, r. ventricle, pulmonary semilunar, pulmonary artery, lungs
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systemic circuit
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(left)(high O2) pulmonary vein, l. atrium, bicuspid, l. ventricle, aortic semilunar, aorta, arteries, arterioles
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cardiac cycle
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systolic= contraction pressure in arteries when heart contracts. diastolic= relaxation pressure in arteries when heart relaxes.
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what make the noises of the heart?
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semilunar valves close= dub, atrioventricular valves close= lub
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SA node?
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controlled by hormones and nervous system, controls how many times your heart beats per min. the pacemaker
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how many times does your heart beat per min?
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60-80 times (70 is average)
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the regulation of heart rate steps
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1. SA node initiation 2. atria contract, signal reaches AV node 3. signal conducted to purkinje fibers, atria fully contracted 4. ventricles contract
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cardiovascular diseases
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hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, heart attack
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hypertension
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high blood pressure (160/90). heart enlarges and not efficient= heart attack. genetics, water retention, sympathetic nervous system too strong (regulate salt intake)
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atherosclerosis
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plaque buildup in arteries. cholesterol
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Coronary artery disease
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atherosclerosis in arteries of the heart. lead to angina- chest pain in exercise w/out an attack. (partial blockage of the heart) treat w/ stent, angio plastic surgery or bypass.
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heart attack
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total lack of oxygen to part of the heart. cells begin to die within 2 hours
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symptoms: fatigue, short breathe, fluid in chest and blood in lungs?
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congestive heart failure if on the left side, buildup in body/swelling if on right side
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lymphatic system functions
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return excess fluid to bloodstream (fluid lost from blood in cap. returned to blood through lymph duct); protection against cancer and disease (lymph nodes)
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lymph; lymphatic vessels; lymph nodes
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fluid that travels through vessels; carry lymph through body; where we filter lymph.
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what are the lymphatic organs?
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tonsils, thymus, thoracic duct, spleen, vessels, nodes
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lymphatic disorders
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elephantiasis= parasitic worm; lymphedema= damage to lymphatic vessels; lymphoma= cancer of lymph nodes.
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types of pathogens
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bacteria, viruses, protozoans, parasitic worms
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bacteria
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use different machinery from ours for reproduction. easier to design medicine-antibodies. three shapes: round, rod-shaped, corkscrew. prokaryotic.
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virus
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use our machinery to reproduce, must have a receptor on the cell for entry, hard to design medicine
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prokaryotic
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lack a nucleus
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giardia
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a protozoan that is found in lake and streams used as a source of drinking water. causes severe diarrhea
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first line of defense
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physical and chemical barriers: skin/mucous membrane; sweat/oil glands= acidity slows bacteria growth; stomach= HCl kills bacteria; saliva/ tears= lysozymes kill bacteria.
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second line of defense
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defensive cells, defensive proteins, inflammatory response, fever
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defensive cells
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eosinophils, phagocytic cells, natural killer cells
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eosinophils
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parasites
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phagocytic cells
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destroy pathogens and dead tissue; neutrophils and macrophages
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natural killer cells
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destroy abnormal cells in the body; cause cells to burst= lysis
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defensive proteins
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complement, interferon
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complement defensive protein
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destroys bacteria; lysis cell
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interferon defensive protein
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Secreted by virally infected cell b4 it is destroyed. Attracts macrophages & natural killer cells to destroy virus when it is released from the cell. Causes cells to "put up" protective shield so they arent infected by virus. Not miracle drug
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inflammation
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histamine released by damaged cells; Dilates blood vessels (inc. blood flow to area, more defen cells & proteins, elevates temp to inc. metabolic rate); Inc. permeability of caps (inc fluid to tissue); blood clotting factor, nutrients, O2; pushes on nerves.
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fever
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Pyrogens raise thermostat in hypothalamus; dec. growth of bacteria; inc metabolic rate of immune cells
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third line of defense
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antibody mediated response, cell mediated response
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antibody mediated response
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destroys specific pathogens in blood or on surface of cells (bacteria). activated b-cells make plasma cells which produce antibodies which kill pathogen on blood OR on surface of cell.
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cell mediated response
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destroys specific pathogens inside the cell (virus, cancer cells). Activated cytotoxic t-cells secrete perforin to lyse infected cells
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cells of third line of defense
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macrophages, lymphocytes (t-cells, B-cells, memory cells)
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cells of immune response
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helper, cytotoxic, suppressor t-cells, b-cells (plasma), memory cells
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helper t-cells
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turns on both antibody and cell med. response
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cytotoxic t- cells
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destroys cells as part of cell med response
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suppressor t-cells
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stop reactivation when threat is over
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macrophage
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presents antigen to helper t-cells to activate third LOD
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plasma cells
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produces antibodies, antibody med response
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memory cells
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circulate to protect us from the pathogen again
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steps of immune response
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threat, detection, alert, alarm, clonal selection, defense, continued surveillance, withdrawal of forces.
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threat and detection
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pathogens enter body and evade 1st and 2nd LOD. Macrophage engulfs pathogen and puts piece of it (antigen) on surface next to MHC marker.
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alert and alarm
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Macrophage finds helper t-cell w/ receptor for antigen. helper t-cell knows macrophage is from body b/c of MHC marker. Helper t-cell secretes chemical to activate b-cell and cytotoxic t-cell designed to fight current pathogen
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clonal selection and defense
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B-cells and cytotoxic cells divide so enough enough to fight pathogen. Antibody and cell med. response go simultaneously
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antibodies kill pathogens in blood Or on surface of cell in what ways?
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precipitation- make phagocytosis easier; Lysis- activation of complement system; Attraction-of phagocytic cells; Neutralization- of toxins produced by bacteria.
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continued surveillance and withdrawal
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Memory helper t, b and cytotoxic cells continue to circulate, more cells available to fight pathogen on second exposure, pathogen killed b4 symptoms. Suppressor cells stop immune response when threat is over.
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how are pathogens spread?
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Direct- infected person contacts uninfected, patho. cant live long out of body. Indirect-uninfected touches something touched by infected, patho. can live outside body for certian time (easy). Food/ Water. Animals- lyme disease, west nile, malaria
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treatment of viral infections
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interferons; drugs-inhibit viral enzyme, must be given withing 24hrs; vaccines- antigen from patho injected to cause immune resp., not full patho so no symptoms.
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respiratory system functions
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BREATHING-O2 into lungs, CO2 out of lungs; EXTERNAL RES. (lungs)O2 from lungs to blood, CO2 from blood to lungs.; GAS TRANSPORT-O2 to tissues, CO2 to lungs; INTERNAL RES.-(tissues)O2 blood to tissues, CO2 from tissues to blood
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Upper Respiratory System
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Nose, pharynx
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Lower Respiratory System
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Larynx- Epiglottis; Trachea; Lungs- Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli
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nose
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Cleans and filters air to keep “debris” out of lungs. Nose hair- large particles. Cilia- “sweep” small pollutant toward throat. Mucous- traps pollutants. Nose warms and moistens the air b/c cold air kills cells ot the lungs. O2 cannot cross air membranes.
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Pharynx
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common pathway for both food and water. Swallowing: Voluntary (Tongue pushes bolus to the back). Involuntary (Once back of
throat, its gone) |
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Larynx
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(glottis) ”voice box” or “Adam’s Apple”—only air
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epiglottis
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open during breathing but covers opening to larynx during swallowing to prevent food/drink from entering trachea.
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Lungs
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Trachea & bronchi have cartilage rings for support. Bronchioles don’t have rings, instead smooth muscles surround bronchioles= meaning diameter can change (under the control of hormones/ nervous system)
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Alveoli
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external respiration
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Mechanism of Breathing
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inhalation, exhalation
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inhalation
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Diaphragm contracts & lengthens thoracic cavity. Intercostals muscles contract and push out chest. Chest cavity inc. in size which dec. pressure. Air moves inside lungs since pressure is < atmospheric pressure
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exhalation
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Diaphragm muscle relaxes shortening thoracic cavity. Intercostals muscles relax pushing thorasic cavity in. Chest cavity dec. in size which inc. pressure. Air moves out of lungs since pressure of atmospheric is less
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Transport of Gases
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Oxygen= 98.5% bound to hemoglobin, 1.5% free in plasma. Carbon Dioxide= 10% free in plasma, 20% bound to hemoglobin, 70% as a bicarbonate ion (H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-)
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Neural Controls
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Cerebral cortex conscious control of breathing; Medulla oblongata unconscious control
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Chemical Controls
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Oxygen (Only activated when O2 is really low). CO2 (Level of CO2 in the blood, measured by H+, regulates breathing rate initiated by medulla)
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cold
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virus, rest/fluids
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flu
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virus, high fever
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strep throat
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bacteria/ fungal, fever, kidney disease
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pneumonia
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bacteria/virus, fluid in the lungs
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Asthma
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Environmental/genetic, Spasms of bronchioles
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Tuberculosis
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Bacteria; Immune system encapsulates bacteria in tubercles; Bacteria not killed and can become active later
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Pleurisy
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Bacteria/virus; Infection of the pleural membrane
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Bronchitis
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Bacteria/virus/environmental; Inflammation of mucus membranes— increase mucus; Chronic or acute
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emphysema
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enviornmental irritant, smoking; alveoli break down; inc dead air space in lungs; not enough O2 to tissues.
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lung cancer
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85-90% caused by cancer; discovered in later stages making treatment hard.
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smoke contains?
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nicotine- additive chemical; inc heart rate(30 beats/min); slows cilia. carbon monoxide- dec O2 to tissues. tar- dec elasticity of lungs,
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women and smoking
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dec chance of pregn.; inc chance of miscarriage, still birth, SIDS and low birth rate; more likely to develop lung can (x-chrom); birth control pills inc blood clots.
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second hand smoking
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higher risk b/c no filter
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gastrointestinal tract
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long tube in digestive system into which accessory glands release their secretions
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basic organ layers
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Mucosa- secretes mucus for lubrication. Submucosa- contains blood vessels. Muscularis- muscle layer for propulsion. Serosa- secretes fluid to reduce friction between organ and organ wall
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pathway of food
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Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine
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Mechanical Digestion
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Physical changing of the food (Mouth, stomach)
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Chemical Digestion
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Breaking chemical bonds of food Mouth, Stomach, Small intestines)
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Mouth
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Teeth= Mechanical, Turns food into bolbus. Tongue= Helps in swallowing, Taste and quality. Salivary Gland= Moisten the food, Salivary amylase (Digests carbs in mouth)
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Esophagus
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Peristalsis= Muscular contraction to help propel the bolus (Help bolus get to the stomach faster)
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stomach
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Storage of Food (2-3 hours, destroy pathogens during this time) Liquefaction of food (Bolus turned into chyme) Chemical Digestion of protein (Pepsin digests protein). Mucus protects stomach from acid, Pepsinogen inactive form of pepsin- activated by HCl. HCl destroys pathogens
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Small Intestine
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Digestion and absorption. Folds increase the time chyme is in SI increases absorption
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Accessory Organs for Small Intestine
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PANCREAS (Secretes enzymes for chemical digestion) LIVER (Fat digestion, Examines blood after absorption- portal system, produces bile) GALLBLADDER (Stores bile which breaks fat into droplets so lipase can digest more)
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chemical digestion in small intestine
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pancreas enzymes (Trypsin-protein, Chymotrypsin- protein, Amylase- sugar, Carboxypeptidase- protein, Lipase- fat) SI enzymes (Maltase- sugar, Sucrase- sugar, Lactase- sugar, Aminopeptidase- protein)
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Absorption—Small Intestine
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Monosaccarides, Amino acids, Fatty acids, Phospholipids, Glycerol, Cholesterol
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Portal System
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Blood examined by liver after absorption; monitors blood glucose level; Removes toxins
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Large Intestine
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Waste- water removed, fiber feeds the bacteria that lives in the large intestine. (waste moves to fast=diarrhea, waste moves to slow=constipation) laxatives don’t work as a weight loss aid
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organs of digestion, food digested, enzyme, organ enzyme made.
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(chart)
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Control of Digestive Activities
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Neural, Hormonal, Don’t want enzymes active unless food is being digested, Otherwise cells own biochemical's will be digested
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Disorders of Digestive System
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Heartburn (Stomach acid enters esophagus) Ulcers (Stomach lining damaged by HCl) Cirrhosis (Liver cells die) Hepatitis (Virus, Inflammation of liver) Crohn’s (Inflammation of intestine) Diverticulitis (Infection of pouches that form walls of colon) Appendicitis (Infection in appendix) Colon Cancer (polyp, Colonoscopy can detect)
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Male Reproductive System
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Testes, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Prostate Gland, Seminal Vesicles, Bulbourethral gland
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testes, epididymis and vas deferens functions
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T= Production of sperm; E= Maturation process; V= Carries sperm to urethra
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prostate gland, seminal ve. and bulbourethral gland functions
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P= Produces alkaline secretion to activate sperm, dec acidity of female tract; S= Fructose for energy, Amino acids to thicken the semen, Prostaglandins to help sperm penetrate cervical mucus and contract uterus to propel sperm; B= Rinses trace amounts of urine from the urethra before semen
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sperm development
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Meiosis cuts chromosome # in half, Only occurs to produce sperm and egg, 1 chromo duplication and 2 cell divisions, Occur throughout life in male after puberty.
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Sister chromatids
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Exactly identical, Result from chromosome duplication
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Homologous chromosomes
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Pair of chromo that contain same type of genes but may not be identical.(ex. both contain gene for eye color but one is for blue eyes and the other is for brown) Inherit one from mom and one from dad. These separate during meiosis. Diploid=have both (2n); haploid=have one (n)
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Spermatogenesis
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Spermatogonium => Primary Spermatocyte (46 chr/2n) => Secondary Spermatocyte (46 chr/n) => Spermatid (23 chr/n). Continues though adulthood b/c spermatogonium undergoes mitosis throughout adulthood. 4 viable sperm/ primary spermatocyte. continuous
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Spermatogonium
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Parent cell, Mitotic divisions throughout adulthood, 46 chr/2n
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Primary Spermatocyte
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One daughter cell from mitotic division of spermatogonium, Homologous chromosomes separate, Forms 2 secondary spermatocytes 46chr/n
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Secondary Spermatocyte
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Sister chromatids of each divide to form 4 spermatids
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Spermatid
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Undergoes morphological changes
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Mature Sperm parts
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Acrosome= enzyme for penetrating egg membrane. Head= contains chromosomes. Middle piece= Mitochondria for energy production. Tail= mobility
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Male Hormones
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Testosterone, GnRH, Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Inhibin
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Testosterone
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Regulates production of sperm/male characteristics; Should remain constant throughout adulthood; Regulated by following negative feedback loop
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GnRH
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hypothalamus; Regulates relase of LH from pituitary gland
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Luteinizing Hormone
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Stimulates production of testosterone in testes
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Follicle Stimulating Hormone
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Inc. production of sperm by making seminiferous tubules more sensitive to testosterone
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Inhibin
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Decreases production of sperm by inhibiting FSH release
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Female Reproductive System
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OVARY- produce estrogen and progesterone, produce eggs OVIDUCT- carry “egg” to uterus, place of fertilization UTERUS- development of baby VAGINA- birth canal
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Ovarian Cycle
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(oogenesis) Primary Oocyte-46 chr/2n, Graafin Follicle, Secondary Oocyte—46 chr/n, Corpus Luteum, Ovum. limited # of years
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Primary Oocyte
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Formed before birth, Begins meiosis 1 before birth but arrest before completed until puberty, Surrounded by layer of follicle cells, Few activated each month. 2n
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Graafin Follicle
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Mature follicle formed as follicle cells divide and form many layers
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Secondary Oocyte
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Formed from division of primary oocyte, Homologus chromo separate, Division is unequal and forms one secondary oocyte and one polar body, Formed right be4 ovulation so secondary oocyte is ovulated. n
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Corpus Luteum
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Formed by remaining follicle cells after ovulation, secretes hormones to maintain pregnancy in beginning until placenta is formed, Degenerates in no pregnancy
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Ovum
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Formed from unequal division of secondary oocyte, 1 ovum and another polar body is formed, Polar body also divided so total of 3 polar bodies formed, Only formed if fertilization takes place, If no fertilization secondary oocyte lost during menstrual cycle
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days 1-5 of menstrual cycle.
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estrogen/ progest. are at lowest. uterine lining thickest on day 1 thinnest on day 5, low estrogen triggers FSH release. activates new prim oocyte
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days 6-13
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follicle maturation. follicle cells divide to form Graafin Follicle, estrogen inc, uterine lining thickens
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day 14
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ovulation. secondary oocyte forms just prior to ovulation, estrogen highest level cause LH release, LH causes ovulation.
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days 15-28
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uterine lining maturation. follicle cells left in ovary form corpus luteum which secretes progesterone which matures uterine lining for implantation.
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not pregnant symptoms
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corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone levels dec, beginning of menstrual cycle
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pregnancy symptoms
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embryo secretes HCG hormone to maintain corpus luteum, proges remains high
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female hormones
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ESTROGEN- secreted by follicle cells FSH- anterior pituitary, activate follicle cells LH- ant. pituitary, ovulation PROGESTERONE- corpus luteum, maintains uterine lining
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birth control pills
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high estrogen inhibits FSH release
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testicular cancer
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affects young men
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PMS
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dec in progesterone
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endometrosis
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uterine lining spreads to other pelvic organs
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PID
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pelvic inflammatory disease. infection of pelvic organs (STD's in women), can lead to permanent scar tissues and inflammation.
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