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252 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Name the 2 parts of the Nervous System? and describe
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Central- recieves info and dictates what to do with info
-sends out commands to get things done Peripheral- collect info and sends it to central nervous system -recieves info from central nervous system and sends to organs |
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What are the 2 groups of the central Nervous system?
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Brain, and Spinal Cord
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Name and describe 2 parts of Peripheral Nervous System?
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Sensory- carries info from other parts of body into central nervous system, associated with aferent
Motor- Carry info from central nervous system to other organs, associated with efferent |
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Name and describe 2 parts of motor nervous system?
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Somatic=serves only skeletal muscle
Autonomic= supplies neurons to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands |
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Describe 2 divisions of autonomic motor nervous system?
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Sympathetic- all about get ready for emergencies, called fight/ flight system, increases heart rate, increases respiration, decreases digestive function,
parasympathetic- conserves energy, promotes housekeeping functions during rest, opposite of sympathetic, decreases heartrate, decreases respiration, increases digestive system |
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Name the 3rd part to the Nervous System and describe
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Interit Nervous System- is the brain of the digestive system
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Which is not true?
A. generator potentials are special type of receptor potential B. receptor potentials are always grated C. intensity of stimulus is encoded by AP frequency D. only a generator potential can induce AP E. All statements are true |
all statements are true
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What is the functional unit of the Nervous System called?
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Neuron
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Describe and name the 3 divisions of a neuron?
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1. Soma- includes the nucleus, cell body, and other organelles associated with cells
2. Dendrites- short branching structures, info collecting systems that pass info inward toward soma only in 1 direction, have chemically gated channels, no voltage gated channels on dendrite, so no AP produced, only local depolarization which can spread to soma 3. axon- only 1 axon per neuron, info goes out to talk to other cells, has voltage gated channels so will create a AP, voltage gated channels are found at Axon Hillock, AP starts here once reach threshold, |
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How many types of glial cells are there?
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20
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What happens at Axon Hillock but not in Dendrites?
A. voltage gated channels open B. Na+ flows into cell C. AP can go in either direction D. K+ influx E. None of above happens in Axon Hillock but not in dendrites |
Voltage gated channels open
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what is the area of the neuron where AP first begin?
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axon hillock
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The autonomic and somatic motor systems supply both motor innervation to various organs. What type of tissues does each supply?
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Somatic- Skeletal
Autonomic- Cardiac muscle, Smooth Muscle, Glands |
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Which is not a glial cell?
A. astrocyte B. ependymal cell C. Microglia D. Schwann cell E. None all are glial cells |
None all are glial cells
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What is not a glial cell found in CNS?
A. Neurilemmacyte B. Ependymal C. Astrocyte D. Microglia |
Neurilemmacyte is found in perpheral nervous system
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Name and describe the important glial cells in CNS?
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1.astrocytes- look like stars, they form continuous barriers around blood vessels, in practice if anything in blood needs to go to the CNS it must go through at least 1 astrocyte, if astrocyte not willing to transfer something from blood it wont get to brain
2.Microglial- 3.Ependymal- 4.Oligodendrocyte- forms myelin sheath around axon, my form myelin sheath for more than 1 axon, can be associated with multiple neurons |
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What are the other cells in the nervous system called
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glial, or neuroglial
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What is the Blood Brain Barrier?
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in practice anything in blood that needs to go through CNS must go through at least 1 astrocyte, this forms a blood brain barrier
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Name and describe glial cells found in the peripheral nervous system?
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Neurilemmacytes-cells that make membranes around neurons, 1 per neuron, wrap themselves around axons multiple times, end up with thick layer of membrane called myalin, helps AP move faster down neuron
sattelite cells- |
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What are parts of axon called where no myalin present and instead have voltage gated channels
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neurilemma nodes
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What is saltatory conduction?
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occurs in cells with myalin sheath, and allows AP to move quickly down axon, AP jump from one neurilemma node to another neurilemma node
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What is function of myalin?
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forms a sheath, good electrical insulator of axon, doesnt allow water or ions get close to neuron, helps AP move down axon quicker than an axon with no myelin
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When ACh binds to receptors on neurons, it causes opening of chemically gated NA+ channels. this results in
A. an ESPS B. hyperpolarization C. an all or none response D. Na influx E more than one is true |
more than one is true
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The type of cell that creates myelination in CNS is the?
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oligodendrocyte
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I can stimulate a neuron to produce an AP with a stimulus of 0.6V if I give a 2nd stimulus 1 ms later, I dont get a 2nd AP but if I increase the strength of a 2nd stimulus to 1V I do. what does this tell me about the 2nd stimulus. It is a
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the 2nd stimulus was applied during the relative refractory period
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How does absolute refractory period differ from relative refractory period
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absolute refractory period-period if 2nd stimulus is applied no matter how large the stimulus a 2nd AP will not happen
relative refractory period- is period that it is possible to stimulate a 2nd AP but need to use larger than normal stimulus |
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Tell reason behind absolute refractory period
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once voltage gated channels open all or none response until all Na channels are open, so cant get 2nd AP with 2nd stimulus b/c Na channels dont reset until below threshold
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Tell reason behind relative refractory period
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after passing theshold some Na channels reset but not all reset until reaching resting membrane potential, so a larger than normal stimulus needs to be applied to get a 2nd AP
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In lab can we send a AP in 2 directions? (T/F)
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True
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Does the refractory period make sure info travels in only 1 direction (T/F)
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True
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What is EPSP? What do the letters in the abbreviation stand for?
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Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential: in CNS most neurons dont release enough neurotransmitter to get 2nd AP in neighbor cell, instead get a local depolarization in neighbor
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Somatic motor neurons always have their somas in the CNS (T/F)
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True
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What is Temporal Summation?
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have EPSP of one cell add 1 after the other on top of each other till reach threshold to create an AP in next cell
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What is Spatial Summation?
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have this cell plus another cell, plus another at same time carry an AP and converge on 1 cell, allow AP to be sent to next neuron
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Match each function with with part of brain
1.routing control for info 2.conscious awareness 3. motor function coordination 4.endocrine master control 5. emotional center 6. carries info from right to left |
1.routing control for info=thalamus
2.conscious awareness=cerebral cortex 3. motor function coordination=cerebellum 4.endocrine master control=hypothalamus 5. emotional center=limbic center 6. carries info from right to left=cerebral commisure |
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What is inhibitory post synaptic potential? Give example
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these neurons release inhibitory neurotransmitters to prevent AP in next cell, example is GABA it cause opening of Cl channels as Cl flows into cell cause hyperpolarization in next cell
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Which is not found in the diencephalon?
A. premotor sulcus B. Linbic system C. pineal gland D. Hypothalmus |
premotor sulcus
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Which is not an essential taste? Salty, Sour, Sweet, bitter
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none all are essential tastes
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The inner most meninx is the
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pia mater
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Name the 4 regions the brain is divided into and describe structure?
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Cerebrum=has right and left half
Cerebelum=has folds to increase surface area and increase connections, near back of brain diencephalon=in center of brain, not wrinkly brain stem=conect brain to spinal cord |
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Describe the 3 layers that protect brain from the skull?
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periosteum- layer on inside of bone
dura mater- 1st layer made of fibro CT, pevent brain from getting broken into pieces, all CNS enclosed by dura mater, around entire brain and spinal cord arachnoid- purple 2nd layer inside dura mater, is spongy and good shock absorber, with web structures Pia mater- 3rd layer right around brain, very delicate, attached to brain, is elastic, give brain shape and supports brain |
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what is cerebral spinal fluid
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made of mostly water, few proteins, Na, Cl, K, is in center of every where in CNS
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What is arachnoid Villus?
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perforates the arachnoid through the dura mater, allows cerebral spinal fluid to go out of sub arachnoid space into the sinus
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What is sub arachnoid space?
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sub arachnoid space- space where webs are, filled with cerebral spinal fluid
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What is a sinus?
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an empty space
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Why is water not a good shock absorber? explain its function
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it is incompressible, helps float the brain, so brain doesnt crush under its own weight
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Put CC for cerebral cortex
CB for cerebellum DI for diencephalon BS for brainstem M for more than one N for none 1.Controls breathing rhythm 2.contains topologic maps 3.make decision about movements 4.decodes sensory info 5.makes emotive ties to memory 6.contains circadian (daily) rhythms 7.pons 8.thalamus 9.food and water balance 10.sensory association area |
1.Controls breathing rhythm=brainstem
2.contains topologic maps=cerebellum 3.make decision about movements=cerebral cortex 4.decodes sensory info= cerebral cortex 5.makes emotive ties to memory=diencephalon 6.contains circadian (daily) rhythms=diencephalon 7.pons=cerebellum 8.thalamus=diencephalon 9.food and water balance=diencephalon 10.sensory association area=More than one |
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In the Cerebrum the outer portion is called the
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cerebral cortex and is made of grey matter
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What is the Central Sulcus? and what is each hill called on either side of the sulcus
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the valley if the cerebrum is cut in half, divides brain functionally
gyrus |
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What is everything anterior to Central Sulcus, and then everything posterior
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anterior is motor, posterior is sensory
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Describe the several regions of the sensory cortex?
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1. post central gyrus= detect tactile stimuli, figure out whats going on
2. pre central gyrus- motor, figure out wat is going on |
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Describe the rest of the cortex?
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primary visual cortex= info from eyes goes here on occipital lobe
auditory primary cortex= info from ears on temporal lobe gustatory cortex= sensory info for taste primary cortex= 1st cortex where sensory info goes, job to sort out where and what happens |
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Describe and explain matter of the cortex?
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in cerebral cortex
grey matter= has axons dendrites and cell bodies in cortex white matter= everything is myolinated, only axons, carries info from 1 region to other inner grey matter= small conc. of cell bodies, called nuclei= made of dendrites, axons, 100's cells, are places where cell bodies are abundant and not a lot of myalin |
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explain how we see a shape?
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1. photoreceptors respond to light
2. primary visual cortex takes info and says its a line 3. secondary cortex looks for patterns 4. association areas look at pattern and match with words 5. auditory cortex then puts words with the shape |
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What are nuclei?
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In inner grey matter, places where cell bodies are abundant and not a lot of myalin
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what is the inner grey nuclei called?
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basal ganglia
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What is the Diencephalon?
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"between brain" region around 3rd ventricle
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Describe and list the parts of the Diencephalon?
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1. Thalmus= biggest part of diencephalon, is central post office of brain, info is sent to thalmus 1st, recieves info from cortex then sends out to other areas of the brain
2. Hypothalmus= made of 10-12 nuclei, has many functions 3. epithalmus= 3rd part above thalmus, consist of pineal gland, and lymbic system |
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What are the functions of the hypothalmus?
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1.autonomic=controls all internal organs
2. emotional state control 3. regulate body temperature 4. food intake 5. water balance 6. sleep/wake cycling 7. control endocrine system |
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Describe the Epithalmus and the 2 systems that make it up?
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1. Pineal gland= produce hormone melatonin, used to coordinate internal clocks
2. lymbic system= important in memory and emotions |
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Describe the brain stem and the structures in includes?
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brain stem= below the Diencephalon, around the 4th ventricle
made of Pons, and Medulla Oblongata = both are responsible for regulate primitive functions with rythmic components ex: breathing, heart rate, temeprature control |
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What was the first region of the brain to evolve?
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1.brain stem
2. Diencephelon |
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What is the Cerebelum?
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cerebelum= underneath the cerebrum, is all about nutrient control, responsible for maintain balance, topologic mapping, motor coordination
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Describe the 3 regions of the cerebelum responsible for?
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maintain balance= constant adjustments in balance so dont fall down
topologic mapping= keeps track of where body parts are and how to move them motor coordination= actions of moving that parts of brain work together |
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Describe the Spinal Cord
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spinal cord= takes info to and from the brain, passes through the vertebral foramen and branches through each vertebrae, has spinal nerves through intervertebral foramen, outer is white matter, inner is grey matter, central canal in the middle,
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what is the outer and inner parts of the spinal cord called
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outer= white matter
inner= grey matter central canal in the middle |
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What is not a function of the hypothalmus?
A. motor pattern selection B. thermoregulation C. water balance D. hunger |
motor pattern selection
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What is found in the diencephalon?
A. basal ganglia B. vermis C. corpus callosum D. limbic system |
limbic system
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What does not occur in the hypothalmus?
A. master endocrine control B. sleep/wake cycling C. body temp control D. bulk mail routing of info |
bulk mail routing of info
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what is the outer most meninx of the spinal cord?
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dura mater
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What are the places that grey matter sticks out?
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Dorsal Horn= takes in sensory info
Ventral Horn= carries motor info lateral horn in cervical and thoracic |
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Does nervous tissue grow all your life, do nerves ever stop growing
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No, spinal cord stops growing after 4,
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What is innermost meninx?
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pia mater
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What fills ventricles of the brain?
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cerebrospinal fluid
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Which is a adrenic substance?
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epinephrine
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What fluid fills the 3rd ventricle?
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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Which nerve supplies parasympathetic innervation to the heart, lungs, stomach and intestine?
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Vagus Nerve X
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the middle meninx is the?
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arachnoid
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the cerebrum consists of an outer white area, intermediate grey and an inner white area? T/F
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False
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The outer meninx is called
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dura mater
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What is the Cauda Equina?
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called the horses tail, at the end of the spinal cord, where anesthesia is applied between 2-3 lumbar, causes surrounding neurons to become numb
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The peripheral nervous system is divided into 2 groups?
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Motor=axons only because dendrites are in CNS
Sensory=dendrites located in target organs, |
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Name and describe 3 categories of sensory receptors?
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modality=wat type of stimulus a receptor is sensitive to
location= where stimulus is detected Complexity= |
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(T/F) any sensory receptor can detect any sufficient stimulus even if not correct modality? give example
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true, photoreceptors in the eye detect light but if pressure is applied also react and create an AP: punched in the eye see bright light
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What are the 5 different modalities detected?
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mechanoreceptors=detect mechanical stimuli, stretch, bend, vibration, pressure
thermoreceptors= detect temp. changes photoreceptors=detect presence of light, in eyes, brain chemoreceptors= detect presence of specific chemical substances, varying specificity nociceptors= detect stimuli perceived as painful by brain, the stimulus is not painful but brain tells it is painful |
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Do thermoreceptors react to temperature both above and below threshold temperature?
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No only react hot or cold
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Meissners corpuscles are sensory receptors in the skin. they rapidly are adapting and sensitive to pressure. What modality of stimulus do they detect? What is their locational classification?
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modality=mechanoreceptors
location= exteroceptors |
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What are the different locations detected for sensory receptors?
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exteroceptors=detect stumili from outside the body, ex:eyes, ears, taste buds, skin
interoceptors= detect stimuli inside the body, most are chemoreceptors or mechanoreceptors proprioceptors=are interoceptors, detect inside stimuli, detect where body parts are by detecting stretch, these are mechanoreceptors ex: joints |
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What are the different complexity detected for sensory receptors?
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simple= dont have own organs
ex: neuron complex=have own organs ex: ear, eye, taste bud, olfactory epithelium |
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The golgi tendon is a sensory receptor located on tendons of muscles, When the tendon stretches the golgi tendon organ depolarizes. it causes AP to travel to the CNS. Which of following is not true of the golgi tendon organ
A. proprioceptor B. chemoreceptor C. mechanoreceptor D. simple receptor E. all are true |
it is not a chemoreceptor
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How do receptors treat info? Give properties
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1. no matter the stimulus, it is transduced into a depolarization
ex. for chemoreceptors, chemical binds to chem gated channel opens up to ions ex. for mechanoreceptors, as cell is stretched mechanically gated channels open from push or pull to let in more or less ions in membrane 2. depolarizations are local and grated: size of response depends on size of stimulus in receptor area 3. if receptor potential exceeds threshold voltage gated channels open, AP created and propagates down neuron, 4. as long as receptor potential is large enough to become generator potentials, AP's continue to be produced 5.adaptation= failure of receptor to respond to constant stimulus |
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what is a receptor potential?
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local and grated response
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What is a generator potential
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when receptor potential is large enough to create a AP, reaches threshold
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What is stimulus strength uncoding?
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can uncode info about stimulus such as length of stimulus is around, based on number and frequency of AP,
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What is adaptation as term applies to sensory receptors?
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failure of receptor to repond to constant stimulus
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Do most nociceptors adapt? explain
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no because they detect stimulus perceived as pain and we need to know when we are doing something stupid
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what kind of receptor allows you to be aware of painful stimuli?
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nociceptor
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What is the name for cranial nerve X?
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Vagus Nerve
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For the rest of the peripheral nervous system, what is a single cell called, what is a bundle of neurons called?
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neuron is a single cell
nerve is a bundle of neurons |
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Every nerve has tough CT wrapped around the outside called?
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epineurium
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Within a nerve a bundle or fascicle of neurons go to a region of the body and have CT around the bundle called?
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perineurium
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each neuron has what wrapped around them?
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endoneurium
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In PNS nerves have what type of function?
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have mixed function, sensory and motor neurons in fasicles
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What are the 12 nerves that come off the brain stem called?
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cranial nerves
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What are spinal nerves?
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spinal nerves= branch off spinal cord serve rest of body, arms, legs, neck
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What are plexi?
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places where nerves criss cross
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What is dorsal root ganglion?
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collection of all cell bodies of sensory neurons
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Lots of organization at spinal cord level, what is the dorsal root, ventral root?
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dorsal root= carries sensory info
ventral root= carries motor info |
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What are 2 types of adrenergic receptors?
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(sympathetic)
Alpha Beta |
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What are 2 types of cholinergic receptors?
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Nicotinic= binds nicotine
muscarinic=binds muscarine |
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Why are long term stressors bad?
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stress= fight/flight,
-stimulates sympathetic, -problems with digestion, -turn on fight/flight response, -adrenal gland turn on and release cortisol which inhibits immune system -cortisol inc blood sugar levels |
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T/F dorsal and ventral root are single function structures, either sensory or motor never both?
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true
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where does motor info come from? where are the cell bodies located? and where are the axons sent out
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1. spinal cord itself,
2. and cell bodies are in spinal cord in ventral horn, 3.only axons sent out through ventral root to other parts of the body |
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The spinal cord branches to 3 large branches.
What is the dorsal ramus? what is the ventral ramus? |
dorsal ramus= goes to structures behind the spinal cord
-muscles of the back -is mixed function, -carries motor axons to muscles Ventral ramus= is mixed function both sensory and motor -goes to structures in front of spinal cord Meningeal ramus= surrounds spinal cord -innervates meninges |
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The AP that cause knee jerk when the doctor strikes the patellar tendon leave the spinal cord via the
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ventral root
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What kind of info is carried by the ventral root?
what info is carried by dorsal root? |
1.motor only
2.sensory only |
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Which is a mixed function nerve?
A. dorsal root B. dorsal ramus C. white ramus communicans D. autonomic neuron |
dorsal ramus
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When I pinch my arm painfully what receptors are activated?
Proprioceptors, deep pressure receptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, more than one |
nociceptors, and deep pressure receptors
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only in cervical vertabae and thoracic, branch off of ventral ramus, what is it?
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rami communicantes= one is white and one is grey due to amount of myalin, carry motor info only
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Are there any sensory info in spinal cord itself?
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no
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what is a reflex?
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grated patterned involuntary response of an organ to a specific stimulus
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Put S for contian sensory neurons
put M for contain motor neurons put B for mixed if it is mixed function structure 1.Ventral root 2.ventral ramus 3.dorsal horn 4.white ramus communicans |
1.Ventral root=Motor (out)
2.ventral ramus=both 3.dorsal horn=Sensory (in) 4.white ramus communicans=motor |
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Fill in parts of generalized reflex arc
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1. receptor
2. afferent pathway 3. integration center 4.efferent pathway 5. effector |
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which tissue surrounds fascicles with a single nerve?
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perineurium
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Put reflex in order?
-achilles tendon stretches -muscle spindle generates AP -neurotransmitter travel across synapse -AP travel along motor neuron -AP travel along sensory neuron -gastrocnemius contract |
1. achilles tendon stretches
2. muscle spindle generates AP 4.neurotransmitter travel across synapse 5. AP travel along motor neuron 3. AP travel along sensory neuron 6. gastrocnemius contract |
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Explain monosynaptic response
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1. stretch tendon, muscle elongates
2. muscle spendle sends AP 3.afferent pathway, quad to spinal cord, along sensory neuron 4. integration center 5. efferent pathway along motor neuron 6. stimulate quad and shorten |
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Does a reflex involve the brain
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NO!!!
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which of the following modalities can never be associated with an exteroreceptor?
photoreceptor, mechanoreceptor, chemoreceptor, nociceptor |
none all can be associated with a exteroreceptor
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What does a proprioceptor do?
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are interoceptors, detect inside stimulus, detect where body parts are by stretching
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put S if with sympathetic nervous system, put P if associated with parasympathetic, put B if both
put N for neither 1.alpha2 receptors 2.increase bronchial dilation 3.speed up contraction of skeletal muscle 4.innervates the heart 5.synapse close to the spinal cord 6.ACh receptors on postsynaptic cells 7.Effector organ has adrenergic receptors 8.arises from thoracic spinal nerves 9.intramural ganglia |
1.alpha2 receptors=sympathetic
2.increase bronchial dilation=sympathetic 3.speed up contraction of skeletal muscle=neither 4.innervates the heart=both 5.synapse close to the spinal cord=sympathetic 6.ACh receptors on postsynaptic cells=both 7.Effector organ has adrenergic receptors=sympathetic 8.arises from thoracic spinal nerves=sympathetic 9.intramural ganglia=parasympathetic |
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What does not contain sensory neurons?
A. sympathetic chain B. dorsal root C. olfactory epithelium D. sciatic nerve |
sympathetic chain
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Which is not typical of the parasympathetic nervous system?
A. cholinergic receptors on target tissue cells B. intramural ganglia C.synapse between spinal cord and target organ D. acetylcholine is released from presynaptic cell E all are typical of parasympathetic nervous system |
all are typical
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Which is a property of sensory cells of smell that is not typical of neurons?
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frequently replaced
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What can bind to muscarinic receptors?
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acetylcholine
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Which is not typical of parasympathetic nervous system?
A. long preganglionic cells B. Ach released by preganglionic cells C. decreased respiratory rate in response D. Abdominal ganglia |
abdominal ganglia
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Describe the 2 sense in order to detect presence of certain chemicals? and what are the organs associated with detection?
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taste= taste buds
smell= olfactory epithelium |
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Why is the sense of touch not a special sense?
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special sense have organs dedicated to detect stimuli, tactile senses are several different modalities: pressure, vibration, temp, touch not a single sense, have receptors for tactile all over the body
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What is the 5th sense instead of touch?
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sense of balance or acceleration detection
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What do cells that detect taste and smell work detect the species?
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detect presence of species in solution
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Describe taste buds? what are the cell types?
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taste buds= located on tongue, epiglottis, cheeks, consist of 3 cell types
1.gustatory receptor cells= detect tasty chemicals have microvillai 2.supporting cells=used for physical support, holds up gustatory receptor cells, nutritional support, need supporting cells for GRC to live 3.basal cells= are pleuriopotent, can turn into receptor cells or support cells as they mature, |
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the pigement in photoreceptors that allow us to detect light?
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rhodopsin
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What are microvillai?
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On gustatory receptor cells, on distal end, hairlike structures, made of proteins
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What is lingual papillae? what shapes do they come in?
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lingual papillae= blobs of tissue come in 4 shapes
1.filiform=no taste buds, allow tongue to manipulate food 2.fungiform= do have taste buds under overhang, all over tongue 3.circumvallae= have taste buds, in back of tongue 4.folli=found on back and sides of tongue |
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Describe why old textbooks with taste mapped out in different areas is wrong?
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you can taste any tase anywhere, just particular parts of tongue more conc. for certain taste
ex: some sour cells are anywhere |
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Name 6 essential tastes and describe?
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1. sweet=detect sugars, sucrose and fructose
2. sour= detect acid 3. salty= detect Na, Cl, and K 4. bitter= detect alkaloids, poison to herbivores 5. umami= created by glutamate is amino acid in proteins 6. fats |
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the cornea is part of?
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fibrous tunic
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G-proteins are not involved in olfactory transduction pathway (T/F)
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False
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Which cell in a taste bud detects tasty chemicals?
|
gustatory cell
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How many essential tastes are there ?
|
5 maybe 6
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Why is MSG is not bad for you?
|
grown in yeast cells, people react to extra yeast left behind which causes reaction to MSG becasue every rxn is not perfect
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What is not an essential taste?
salty, bitter, skunky, umami |
skunky
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Describe signal transduction pathway of taste?
|
1. chemical interact with receptors on microvillai of gustatory receptor cells
2. cause chem gated Na channels to open, Na flows in 3. makes a receptor potential, if potential large enough 4. release neurotransmitters from receptor cells 5.trigger AP in neuron 6. AP travel up from mouth via facial nerve to the brain |
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what are the cells of smell called and what are in them?
|
olfactory epithelium, in these are olfactory receptive cells, and these have microvillai, their axons project out of the olfactory epithelium through cribiform plate to form synapse with neurons in olfactory nerve
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How are taste and smell different?
|
in smell cells are located in a single patch in nasal cavity,
for taste buds are scattered in mouth |
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gustatory receptor cells cannot be neurons b/c they are replaced periodically and no neuron is ever replaced after birth (T/F)
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False
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Describe smell transduction pathway?
|
1. odorant molecule react with receptor protein in cell membrane
2. when odorant bound to receptor it activates a G-protein 3. G-protein phosphorilates itself 4. when G-protein is phosphorilated, binds to adenylate cyclase 5. activates adenylate cyclase and it converts ATP to cAMP 6. cAMP bind to chem gated Na channels, allows Ca and Na to flow in, 7.depolarizes cell, creates receptor potential 8. have voltage gated channels create AP 9. AP sent by neuron to olfactory nerve |
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How many genes are associated with smell reception?
|
over 1000
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Describe difference between taste and smell transduction?
|
taste cells dont have voltage gated channels cannot make AP, they release neurotransmitters cause synapse between neuron and taste bud
smell cells have voltage gated channels and create AP |
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The sensory cells of taste have been argued over for a long time. Some scientists say they must be neurons and others argued they couldnt be. List pieces of evidence in support of both positions in this arguement.
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Neuron like= release neurotransmitter in response to depolarization, can detect different chemicals that bind to chem gated channels
not neuron like= taste cells do not create AP, both cells are replaced frequently, |
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How was the arguement on whether receptive cells are neurons resolved?
|
1. took early embryos, mesoderm give rise to neuron, ectoderm give rise to epithelium cell
2. inject graphite into embryo cells, let cells grow and divide into different tissues 3. found graphite injected in ectoderm found in gustatory receptor cells so these are epithelium 4. graphite injected in neural tube found in olfactory cells so they are neurons |
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Name muscles that help eye move?
|
4 rectus=help move up down left right
2 obliques= help move in spin axis 1 Lavatur palpebrae superioris= it lifts the upper eyelid |
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How do you close the eye?
|
obicularis oculi
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What is conjunctivitis?
|
swelling or inflammation of thin lining of eyelid, transparent CT along surface of eyeball,
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What are the tunics of the eye?
|
fibrous tunic=outer for support and protection
vascular tunic=inside that has blood vessels for nutritional support of eye sensory tunic=innermost detect light |
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what are the 2 parts of the fibrous tunic?
|
sclera=dense irregular CT, made of dura mater, is opaque gives eyeball its shape,
cornea= transparent layer, made of 2 layers of simple cuboid epithelium, with dense core of collagen fibers |
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Explain cataracts?
|
Epithelium cells in cornea have active Na pumps, export Na and Cl out of collagen area, water moves out as NaCl is taken out, this helps collagen fibers to stay aligned, if dont pump out water collagen fibers plump
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vascular tunic made of 3 parts?
|
1.coroid tissue= has lots of blood vessels, bring in blood supply to eye, is black, high density of melanin,
2.ciliary body= bit of smooth muscle at front of coroid, attached to lens, if ciliary body pulls on lens it flattens to focus on far away things, if ciliary body relaxes, then it stops pulling on lens to focus on close up things 3. iris= pigmented with melanin, control how much light allowed in eye |
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Is a pinna found in the middle ear?
|
no
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Describe the 3 part of the Sensory Tunic?
|
retina= made of 2 layers, inner layer with sensory receptors
optic disc=is the blind spot, In sensory tunic, area where optic nerve leaves eye to brain, no photoreceptors, brain fills in area of blind spot based on whats next to it fovea centralis=largest amount of photoreceptors, area of best visual acuity |
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describe the lens
|
lens= is transparent, made of 1 layer simple cuboid epithelium cell and has crystalline, allows lens to snaps back to original shape if not pulled on
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What is presbiopia?
|
as get older UV light cause crossibridges of crystalline molecules, makes crystalline less stretchy, so ciliary body can still pull to flatten lens but it is harder for the lens to snap back to focus on close up things
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What are photoreceptors in the eye in the shape of? where are they located?
|
rods=packed with discs of membrane with same diameter, detect absence or presence of light, white/black
cones=discs get smaller as we move out to the distal end if see different colors of light in the retina |
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What is rhodopsin? what two things is it made of?
|
rhodopsin=Within discs of cones or rods, is made of protein
opsin= large complex protein, doesnt move, has hydrophillic and hydrophobic regions in membrane retinal=in hydrophobic region of opsin is retinal, is an aldehyde with a double bond at C11 in 11-Cis conformation |
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What happens when light is shined on rhodopsin (BLEACHING)
|
1. shine light on 11-Cis retinal switchs to all-trans retinal,
2. in opsin only room for 11-cis so all-trans moves out of hydrophobic region 3. cause rhodopsin to activate 4. turns on G-protein then activates phosphodiesterase 5. activated phosphodiesterase takes cyclic GMP turns in linear GMP 6. Linear GMP cant bind to chem. gated sodium channels 7. cell repolarizes stops release of neurotransmitters |
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Describe what happens when light is shined on the retina?
|
1. shine light on photoreceptor cells less neurotransmitter released, bipolar and horizontal cells not stimulated as much
2. inhibitory neurotransmitter produced by bipolar cells is lessened going to ganglion cells 3. so ganglion cells AP increase in light |
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What hapens when rhodopsin is in the dark? (Dark Current)
|
1. cyclic GMP not linearized so can bind to chem gated Na Channel, allows Na in
2. photoreceptor cell depolarizes 3. depolarized neuron releases neurotransmitters |
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Describe what happens when retina is in dark?
|
1. photoreceptor cells release neurotransmitter in the dark
2. neurotransmitter stimulate bipolar cells to increase production of inhibitory neurotransmitter 3. inhibits ganglion cells, decrease AP in the dark |
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Name 4 layers of cells in the retina?
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1.sensory layer
2. horizontal cells 3. bipolar cells 4. anicrine cells 5. ganglion cells |
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Taste and smell are identical chemical senses, detected by identical sensory cells. They only difference is in how far away stimuli can be detected? (T/F)
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False
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How many types of rods does a normal human have?
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one
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What is the optic disc?
|
is the blind spot, In sensory tunic, area where optic nerve leaves eye to brain, no photoreceptors, brain fills in area of blind spot based on whats next to it
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What is the Fovea Centralis?
|
largest amount of photoreceptors, area of best visual acuity,
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When light strikes a photoreceptor which of the following does not happen?
A. g-protein is activated B. cGMP is destroyed C. ganglion cells depolarize D. photoreceptors depolarize |
photoreceptors depolarize
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Which does not happen when light strikes the retina?
A. Na flows in B. ganglion cells fire C. phosphodiesterase activate D. Chem gated channels close |
Na flows in
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Which of the following does not happen when light strikes the retina?
A. bipolar cells stop releasing neurotransmitter B. transducin activates phosphodiesterase C. Na channels in the photoreceptor cell close D. ganglion cells send AP to the brain E. All happen |
All happen when light strikes the retina
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Which is not a sensory tunic structure?
A. optic disk B. fovea centralis C. optic foramen d. retina |
optic foramen
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F for fibrous tunic
V for vascular tunic S for sensory tunic 1. iris 2. ciliary muscles 3. retina 4. fovea centralis 5. cornea 6. sclera |
1. iris=vascular
2. ciliary muscles=vascular 3. retina=sensory 4. fovea centralis=sensory 5. cornea=fibrous 6. sclera=fibrous |
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Opsin portion of rhodopsin comes in 4 forms in humans what are they?
|
opsin in rods sensitive to light
opsin in cones not sensitive to light, opsin comes in 3 forms in cones |
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Which is not true?
A. cones allow one to see color B. rods are most sensitive to light than cones C. color blind people lack a blue cone D. there are 3 different opsins in the human eye |
color blind people lack the blue cone
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name 3 forms of opsin in cones and structural differences?
|
red cones
blue cones green cones |
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What is not found in the retina?
A. ganglion cell B. amacrine cell C. horizontal cell D. Bipolar cell E. All are found in retina |
all are found in retina
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Which does not involve hair cells?
A. detection of sound B. Detection of linear acceleration C. Detection of angular acceleration D. Detection of odorants |
Detection of odorants
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(T/F) color blindness is a lack of red cones? why are males more susceptible
|
true, gene for red cones on X chromosome,
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What is the sensory info that the ear senses?
|
sound
sense of balance/acceleration |
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The ear is divided into 3 parts, what are they?
|
Outer ear
inner ear middle ear |
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The outer ear consists of what 2 parts? Name there functions?
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pinna=collects sounds, direct sound to middle ear through external auditory canal
external auditory canal |
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What is the middle ear? Name the 4 parts in the middle ear and there functions?
|
pharyngo tympanic tube= helps to keep air pressure in middle ear same as outside
3 auditory osicles= (malleus , inces, stapes) bones act as levers to increase vibration from tympanic membrane transfer to inner ear tensor tympani= muscle attach to typanic membrane, contracts as loud sounds are detected, membrane less able to vibrate stapedius=muscle attached to Stapes, when contracted during loud sounds doesnt allow Stapes to vibrate as much |
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Which is not found in the middle ear?
A. Stapedius B. Malleus C. Vestibule D. typanic membrane |
Vestibule
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|
What happens to you on an airplane?
|
-if the pressure is different from outside to middle ear then tympanic membrane will bulge from side of high pressure to low pressure side,
-interferes with vibration of membrane, -you yawn on airplane to pop membrane and equalize pressure |
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What is function of the tensor tympani muscle in the ear
|
muscle attached to typanic membrane, contracts as loud sounds are detected, membrane less able to vibrate
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What prevents damage to your ear from loud sounds?
|
stapedius, tensor tempany
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To fit the inner ear in bone, the opening of the bone is called?
|
bony labrinth
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|
the inner ear floats in a liquid called what
|
perilymph
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|
The inner ear has what in it?
and what 3 regions is it divided into |
membranous labrinth= fits in bony labrinth
divided into 3 regions 1. vestibule 2. semicircular canals 3. cochlea |
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|
What is otolith
|
-on top of epithelium layer, or macula
-in the saccule of the vestibule -has crystals of calcium carbonate, -so when you move otolith lags behind due to inertia, -bends hair cells in direction and acceleration is detected |
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What liquid is inside the vestibule, semicircular canal, and cochlea?
|
endolymph
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|
Otolith is found in the?
|
saccule
|
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What is a hair cell?
|
hair cell=special epithelium cell, lots different sized cilia on them, kinocilium=longest cilia, stereocilia= arranged in decreasing lengths away from kinocilium
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The structure that actually detects sound is the?
|
hair cell
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|
|
What are the 2 regions in the vestibule
|
saccule and utricle
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|
|
What is the macula?
|
-within the saccule and utricle, is epithelium layer with lots of hair cells each in own direction,
-can direct acceleration in planes -saccule has verticle macula -utricle has horizontal macula |
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|
Explain the effect of gravitational pull on macula receptor cell in utricle
|
-cilium are attached to each other by ropes,
- when one hair cell cilia bends pulls others - if bent toward kinocilium Na mechano gated channels open, cell depolarizes, inc. AP frequency -if bent away from kinocilium, doors close, cell hyperpolarizes, dec. frequency of AP |
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|
Which of following is NOT involved in detection of sound?
A. Scala tympani B. Helicotrema C. Round Window D. Spiral Organ of Corti E. All are involved in detection of sound |
All are involved in sound detection
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|
What are semicircular canals?
|
-detect spinning
- ampula is inside with crista ampulerice in it - and hair cells embedded in the cupula=jello blob of stuff, no rocks |
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|
What is crista ampulerice?
|
-in ampula of semicircular canals, are hair cells that stick cilia into cupula
|
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|
How do you detect spinning?
|
-endolymph stays at rest when spinning,
-bends hair cells of crysta ampulerice embeded in cupula -cause AP go up to brain |
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|
The structure that actually detects high pitched sound is the?
|
hair cell
|
|
|
What is the Cochlea? Name structure inside?
|
cochlea=portion of inner ear
consists of 3 tubes= scala vestibulee, scala tympany, scala media |
|
|
What is the modiolus
|
mound of spongy bone in the cochlea
|
|
|
What is a helicotrima?
|
helicotrima= in cochlea is the connection of scala vestibulee to scala typany
|
|
|
What is the function of the round window?
|
juts into the middle ear, doesnt allow pressure to build up due to movement of endolymph
|
|
|
What is the scala media? describe its structures inside?
|
scala media= is a tube of the cochlea, not connected to other scalas,
-has organ of corti inside which has basaler membrane and tectorial membrane inside it |
|
|
What is the basaler membrane?
|
-within the organ of corti, special membrane with fibers embedded in it of different lengths
-short fibers closer to oval window -long fibers closer to helicotrima |
|
|
What is the tectorial membrane?
|
tectorial membrane= part of organ of corti, cartilage, that does not move, hair cell are embedded in the membrane
|
|
|
How does brain determine pitch of sound detected? How does it determine intensity of sound?
|
-each neuron detect 1 frequency of sound
-brain figure out pitch by which neuron sends in AP -and intensity determined by how many hair cells respond |
|
|
Match ear functions with structure:
Detect angular acceleration Amplify sound detect linear acceleration collect sound identify pitch of sound detect gravity from these terms external ear saccule and utricle cochlea middle ear semicircular canals |
Detect angular acceleration= semicircular canals
Amplify sound=middle ear detect linear acceleration =saccule and utricle collect sound=external ear identify pitch of sound=cochlea detect gravity=saccule and utricle |
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|
Which is not detected by hair cells?
A. angular acceleration B. sound amplitude C. linear acceleration D. force of gravity E. All are detected by hair cells |
all are detected by hair cells
|
|
|
V for vestibule
S for semicircular canal C for cochlea 1.spinning motions 2. attachment for stapes 3. basilar membrane 4.saccular macula 5. scala media 6. cupula 7. music 8.falling down a mineshaft 9.tripping and falling on face |
1.spinning motions=semi circular canal
2. attachment for stapes=vestibule 3. basilar membrane=cochlea 4.saccular macula=vestibule 5. scala media=cochlea 6. cupula=semi circular canal 7.music=cochlea 8.falling down a mineshaft= vestibule 9.tripping and falling on face=semicircular canal |
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|
which is a neurotransmitter?
A. Na B. ACh C. epinephrine D. FSH |
ACh
|
|
|
What is a hormone?
|
substance that is synthesized by 1 organ, released into blood, and acts on a specific target organ or tissue at a distance from the original organ
|
|
|
Which is part of steroid mechanism of Action but not part of any peptide hormone mechanism?
A. hormone binds to receptor protein B. second messenger carries info C. hormone binds to DNA D. G-protein is activated E. more than one |
hormone binds to DNA
|
|
|
What is IP3 and what does it do when it reaches the ER
|
secondary messenger
5. IP3 binds to receptor on ER 6. open up Ca chem. gated channels 7. Ca is released from ER 8. Ca binds to calmodulin and activates it 9. calmodulin turn on/off regulatory proteins |
|
|
How do peptide dereived hormone work for IP3, Ca, diacyl glyceride?
|
1. peptide hormone binds to receptor protein on cell membrane
2. this activates a G-protein (excitatory/inhibitory) 3. G-protein turns (on/off) phospholigase 4. PIP2 is acted upon and split into IP3 and diacyl glyceride 5. IP3 binds to receptor on ER 6. open up Ca chem. gated channels 7. Ca is released from ER 8. Ca binds to calmodulin and activates it 9. calmodulin turn on/off regulatory proteins |
|
|
How do peptide derived hormones work for cAMP?
|
1. peptide hormone binds to receptor protein on cell membrane
2. this activates a G-protein (excitatory/inhibitory) 3. G-protein turns (on/off) adenolate cyclase 4.cAMP is produced 5. acts on inactive protein kinase to activate it 6. the kinase phosphorylate other preexisting protein |
|
|
Explain how a steroid hormone works?
|
1. steroid pass through cell membrane
2. binds to receptor protein 3. then receptor-hormone complex binds to DNA 4. once bound to DNA, modifies transcription 5.produces new mRNA 6.mRNA travels back to cytoplasm where translation makes new proteins |
|
|
Is thyroid hormone a steroid hormone or peptide derived?
|
steroid hormone
|
|
|
How is a hormone categorized name 2 categories?
|
peptide derived=
-made from amino acids -linked by peptide bonds -are water soluble steroid like= -all made from cholesteral -are fat soluble |
|
|
Which is not part of the cAMP pathway of signal transduction?
A. G-protein B. adenylate cyclase C. membrane bound receptor D. Calmodulin |
Calmodulin
|
|
|
Name points that define the endocrine system?
|
1. produces hormone
2. ductless glands 3. substances produced travel by blood |
|
|
What is true of all endocrine organs?
A. products are not secreted into ducts B. products act on same organ that produced them C. products produce generl effects on all tissues D. products always increase transcription |
products are not secreted into ducts
|
|
|
The endocrine and nervous systems both allow communication. What determines when the nervous system is used and when the endocrine system is used?
|
nervous system used when an immediate response is needed for a short period of time,
endocrine system used when a response is not immediate but need to last for a long period of time |
|
|
what organ produces glucocorticoids and what do they do?
|
adrenal gland, regulate glucose in the body
|
|
|
What organ produces mineralocorticoids and what do they do?
|
the adrenal gland, regulate Na leveld in the body
|
|
|
Name second messengers
|
cAMP, IP3, Ca, and diacyl glyceride
|
|
|
Which is not an endocrine organ?
A. heart B. pancreas C. pituitary gland D. liver |
all are endocrine organs
|
|
|
Which of the following is not a second messenger?
A. cAMP B.Ca C. PIP D. Phospholipase C |
phospholipase C
|
|
|
Why do steroid hormone effects persist longer than those of peptide hormones?
|
steroid hormone interact with DNA to change transcription and make new protein which must be broken down till effect goes away
peptide hormone- dont make a new protein, they activate an inactive protein, and dephosphorylate to turn off |
|
|
CB for cerebellum
DI for diencephalon BS for brainstem M for more than one N for none 11.conscious thought 12. motor initiation 13. rhythmic functions like breathing 14. auditory processing 15. motor coordination 16. emotion-memory links 17.sleep wake cyclicity |
11.conscious thought= cerebral cortex
12. motor initiation=cerebrum 13. rhythmic functions like breathing=brain stem 14. auditory processing=cerebrum 15. motor coordination=cerebellum 16. emotion-memory links=diencephalon 17.sleep wake cyclicity=diencephalon |
|
|
put S if with sympathetic nervous system, put P if associated with parasympathetic, put B if both, put N for neither
10.innervates skeletal muscle 11.presynaptic cell releases ACh 12.chain ganglia 13.elevates heart rate 14.synapse between CNS and effector 15.post ganglionic cell has adrenergic receptors 16.increase intestinal modality 17.cranial nerve carries fibers of the system 18.preganglionic cell releases ACh 19. adregenic receptors on postsynaptic cell |
10.innervates skeletal muscle=neither
11.presynaptic cell releases ACh=both 12.chain ganglia=sympathetic 13.elevates heart rate=sympathetic 14.synapse between CNS and effector=both 15.post ganglionic cell has adrenergic receptors=neither 16.increase intestinal modality=parasympathetic 17.cranial nerve carries fibers of the system=parasympathetic 18.preganglionic cell releases ACh=both 19.adregenic receptors on postsynaptic cell=neither |
|
|
put S if with sympathetic nervous system, put P if associated with parasympathetic, put B if both, put N for neither
20. long postsynaptic cell 21 Effector organs have muscarinic receptors 22. short presynaptic neuron 23. arises in thoracic region 24. adrenergic receptors 25. cholinergic receptors on postsynaptic dendrites 26. fight/flight 27. rest/digest 28. synapse close to target organ 29. sacral nerves 30. post ganglion cells release epinephrine or norepinephrine |
20. long postsynaptic cell= sympathetic
21 Effector organs have muscarinic receptors=parasympathetic 22. short presynaptic neuron=sympathetic 23. arises in thoracic region= sympathetic 24. adrenergic receptors= sympathetic 25. cholinergic receptors on postsynaptic dendrites=both 26. fight/flight=sympathetic 27. rest/digest=parasympathetic 28. synapse close to target organ=parasympathetic 29. sacral nerves-parasympathetic 30. post ganglion cells release epinephrine or norepinephrine=sympathetic |
|
|
CB for cerebellum, DI for diencephalon, BS for brainstem, M for more than one,N for none
18.cardiac control center 19. primitve rhythmic functions 20. brocas speech area 21. coordination motor pathways 22.topographic mapping 23. emotive states 24. decision making 25.sensory association 26.coordination of movement |
18.cardiac control center=brain stem
19. primitve rhythmic functions= brain stem 20. brocas speech area= cerebrum 21. coordination motor pathways=cerebellum 22. topographic mapping=cerebellum 23. emotive states=diencephalon 24. decision making=cerebrum 25.sensory association=cerebrum 26.coordination of movement= cerebellum |
