Years Of Total War To Modern Times

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The Front

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Britain lost almost a million men in WWI, most of them died on the Western Front. Stretching 440 miles from the Swiss Border to the North Sea, the line of trenches, dug-outs and barbed- wire fences moved very little between 1914-1918, despite attempts on both sides to break through. (Animated map-http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/interactive/animations/western_front/index_embed.shtml) In 1914 Germany aligned with Austria-Hungary and France with Russia. Britain had no formal commitment to France or Russia, but had developed 'understanding' since 1904. It was presumed, that in a European war, Britain would fight on the left-hand side of the French. Fearing a war on TWO fronts, the Germans adopted the Schlieffen plan- to sweep through neutral Belgium and on to France, encircling Paris. The aim was to knock France out of the war quickly before Russia could mobilize its forces. The Germans advanced SW through Belgium, where the British made contact with them at Mons on the 23rd of August. The British briefly halted the Germans, , but since there was an overwhelming number of them, they had to retreat, which drew out 200 miles and continued south for two weeks until it ended on the river Mame. Then, the Germans were counter-attacked by the French with British support, who drove them back over the rivers Marne and Aisna. Here both sides dug in- a foretaste of trench warfare. "Race to the sea"- both sides tried to outflank each other to the north in what became known as 'the race to the sea.' The Belgian city of Ypres was the final barrier between the German and the Channel ports. The allies determined to hold it at all costs. The Germans launched their first attack on Ypres in an attempt to break through, but were finally beaten off by the very last reserves of the old regular British Army, crucially assisted by the elements of the Indian army. The German attack died away and Ypres was saved for the time being. Both sides then settled down for the first winter of the war. 1915- trenchwarfare began; Second Battle of Ypres made for 95,000 casualties, 63% British and 37% German; in Sept. 1915 the allies launched a joint offensive (French, British, etc.); 1916- The Battle of Verdun, the German solution to the 'stalemante' was to bleed France, white w/ a HUGE offensive at Verdun; In February 1916, the Germans shattered French defences (French incurred 400,000 casualties, while Germans had 350,000); The battle of the Somme brought MANY casualties to all sides; The 3rd battle of Ypres took the lives of 325,000 British soldiers; August 8th 1918- 'Black Day of the German Army,'; Armistice document signed in Compiegne and guns fell silent at 11AM, Finally at the Mons there is a memorial commemorating the infamous shot that occured at 1914.

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The Russian Revolutions

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The Russian Revolution occured during the final phase of WWI in 1917, and brought about the transformation of the Russian Empire into the USSR (the replacing of Russia's traditional monarchy with the world's FIRST communist state). The rev. happened in two separate coups, one in February and one in October. The new government was led by Vladimir Lenin, who solidified power after just 3 years of civil war, which ended in 1920. The causes were abrupt, but were building over a century. The monarchy had become weaker and more vulnerable. There was assasination of monarchs among the people, who acted as 'revolutionary terrorists,' during the time. This began with tsar Nicholas II in 1894. As Nicholas II grew weaker, Lenin became more prominent as the most powerful figure in Russia. Vladimir was involved in the idea of assasinating the tsar, a thought his brother- Alexander- had conjured up fairly early. The revolution in Russia allowed for the industrial revolution in Russia to occur. These widespread technological innovations included: electrification, that allowed for regional urbanization. Education also increased, and iliteracy was nearly eradicated. The revolution also had international consequences though. In an effort to contain this radical position, places such as the US sent troops over to the USSR to contain the chaos. Russia only wanted to continue to spread communism however and create communist revolutions throughout the world. The USSR collapsed in 1991.

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Treaty of Versailles

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Known as 'the treaty that ended WWI,' The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. It was the peace settlement between Germany and the allied powers, that officially ended WWI. However, the conditions in the treaty were inflicting punishment onto Germany. This lead many to belive that the treaty laid the groundwork for the eventual rise of the Nazis in Germany, hence- the eruption of WWII. The details of the treaty were debated and finalized at the Paris Peace Conference, which opened on January 18, 1919. The big three, who remained influential throughout the debates were- Prime Minister David Lloyd Gorge of the UK, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of France and President Woodrow Wilson (of the US). on May 17, 1919- the treaty was handed over to Germany. They were given instructions that they only had 3 wks. to agree to the treaty. It still was meant to punish them, and they filed many complaints, which made for a lengthy document that was composed of 44 articles (plus annexes) divided into 15 parts. The 1st part of the treat was the league of nations. Other parts included: military limitations, prisoners of war, finances, access to ports and waterways and reparations. The most controversial part of the treaty was the responsibility that Germany was to take over the causation of WWI, known as the guilt clause. The terms were so punishing of Germany that the Chancellor Phillip Scheidemann resigned rather than sign the hostile document. On June 28, 1919 (five years after the assasination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand), Germany's reps signed the treaty in the hall of mirrors in the palace of versailles near Paris, France.

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Italian Fascism

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Post WWI, Italy was intensely dissatisfied with her efforts in the war and the 'spoils' she was awarded by the treaties. After the war, the economy was chaotic and the government was corrupt. There was no order. They weren't happy with the territories they recieved from the Conference of Paris. There was a general feeling of mutilated victory. the irredentisti claimed for more territories they considered that had to belong to Italy. (Info from- http://www.slideshare.net/papefons/fascist-italy-and-nazi-germany); They continued to be a liberal monarchy, but were unable to face postwar problems such as: unemployment, inflation, high external debts, influence of Bolshevik Revolution, siezure of land and factories and of course- political instability. These problems laid out fertile ground for extremist ideologies. Bennito Mussolini was a former Socialist, he was promoted to WWI corporal and was instructed to create an extreme right group to confront workers and peasants protests. They were an extreme rights group and the 'germ' of the National Facist party. They had a paramilitary group called the Blackshirts. The Fascists demanded power and threatened the government with the use of violence. Mussolini was appointed prime minister in 1924. Italy furthermore, became a tolalitarian state consisting of a one-single party system with no division of powers and persecution and repression of the opposition. All aspects of the individuals' life are subordinated to the authority of the State. "All within the State, none outside the State, non against the State." Citizens had to obey Facist law in order to be considered 'good citizens.' Propoganda was used to glorify Mussolini's approach to government. Furthermore, he started wars to conquer territories such as Ethiopia and Albania.

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The Interwar Period

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http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/interwaryears/section5.rhtml

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Nazi Germany

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The Third Reich started in 1933 and lasted until 1945. Hitler was first trying to create a totalitarian state. Hitler won his mandate in 1933 by promising to due away with his internal enemies. The Knight of the Long Knives was Hitler's first internal purge. It paved the way for his dictatorial rule by terror, much like Stalin's purges that began during the same period. The Nazis moved to control civic and public institutions in the name of national and economic construction. This was part of the racist ideology of Mein Kampf. During so, Hitler argued the Jews and Slavs were a threat to the German nation and its dominant Aryan race. The Nazis denied intermarriages between the genetically deficient and the 'healthy' population. They denied any social services to the 'genetically deficient' which lead to outright sterilization and euthanasia. Hitler's goal was to create a racially pure state. The Gestapo, was Hitler's secret police. They enforced Hitler's policies. People feared these dreadful people, it forced them into trying to conform to racial stereotypes and hide any elements of their identity that might raise the suspicion of the Gestapo. Note though, that Hitler's separation of Jews and Aryans went beyond this. His 'undesirables' also included: Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, socialists, communists, homosexuals, Jehovah's witnesses, feminists, disabled people and any other people who suffered from genetic diseases such as syphilis, tuberculosis or alcoholism. The first concentration camp was established in 1933. It was meant to advance the elimination of undesirables. It was established at Dachau. Initially people were just starved to death, but later they were turned into more efficient 'killing factories.' The policy of segregating and later eliminating Jews began to take shape in 1935 through the Nuremberg Laws. Aryan women had to abide by the Nazis policies, which limited their social role to the home and children. Hitler raised the wealthy business class. The Nazi class virtually eliminated unemployment, being less than one percent. From an economic standpoint, the Nazis were more capitalist than socialist. Hitler used intense antisemitic propaganda tools. They hired Leni Riefenstahl to make propaganda films for them. By the late 1930's German industrial power was second only that to the U.S. They were in clear violation of the Versailles Treaty, what with their new market for their guns. By the end of 1936, the Berlin-Rome Axis had been formed, an alliance, of like minded states that would later include Japan, a militarist and expansionist power already embarked on a conquest in East Asia and the Pacific. At the Munich Conference of 1938 in September, the British and French caved into the German demands, justifying their desertion of Czechoslovakia, as a small price to pay for securing peace. Hitler turned toward another potential ally, the Soviet Union. On August 23, 1939- the 2 mortal enemies, Hitler and Stalin, signed a non-aggression agreement known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, for the foreign ministers who negotiated it. By the end of WWII almost 70 million people had perished.

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WWII (Major Events)

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1. September 1939: Poland occupied by Nazi and Soviets
2. May 1940: Churchill becomes Prime Minister of Britain
3. June 1940: Nazis occupy France
4. Fall 1940: Battle of Britain
5. March 1941: Lend-Lease Act
6. April 1941: Nazis occupy Greece and Yugoslovia
7. June 1941: Operation Barbarossa: Nazis invade Soviet Union
8. December 1941: Pearl Harbor; United States enters the war
9. November 1942: Allied invasion of North Africa
10. February 1943: German surrender at Stalingrad
11. July 1943: Soviet victory at Kursk
12. September 1943: Allied invasion of Italy
13. June 1944: Operation Overlord: Allied Invasion of Normandy and liberation of France
14. August 1944: Warsaw Uprising
15. February 1945: Yalta Conference
16. May 8, 1945: Soviets liberates Berlin, Germans surrender
17. August 6 and 9, 1945: United States drops atomic bombs in Japan
18. August 14, 1945: Japan Surrenders

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The Holocaust

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The Holocaust began in 1933 when Hitler cam to power in Germany and ended in 1945 when the Nazis were defeated by the Allied powers.
The term 'Holocaust' originally from the Greek work 'holokauston' which means 'sacrifice by fire' refers to the Nazi's persecution and planned slaughter of the Jewish people. The Hebrew word “Shoah” which means 'devestation, ruin or waste' is also used for this genocide
In addition to the Jews, the Nazi's targeted Gypsies, homosexuals, Jehovah's witnesses, and sthe disabled for persecution. Anyone who resisted the Nazis was sent to forced labor or murder.
The term Nazi is an acronym for 'Nationalsozialistshe Deutsche Arbeiterpartei' (National Socialist German Worker's Party)
The Nazis used the term 'the final solution' to refer to their plan to murder the Jewish people.
The BIG numbers- it is estimated that 11 million people were killed during the Holocaust. Six million of these were Jews.
The Nazis killed approximately two thirds of all Jews living in Europe.
An estimated 1.1 million children were murdered in the Holocaust.
Persecution Begins- On April 1, 1933 the Nazis instigated their first action against German Jews by announcing a boycott of all Jewish-run businesses.
The Nuremberg Laws, issued on September 15, 1935, began to exclude Jews from public life. The Nuremberg Laws included a law that stripped German Jews of their citizenship and a law that prohibited marriages and extramarital sex between Jews and Germans. The Nuremberg Laws set the legal precedent for further anti-Jewish legislation.
Nazis then issued additional anti-Jews laws over the next several years. For example, some of these laws excluded Jews from places like parks, fired them from civil service jobs (i.e. government jobs), made Jews register their property, and prevented Jewish doctors from working on anyone other than Jewish patients.
During the night of November 9-10, 1938, Nazis incited a pogrom against Jews in Austria and Germany in what has been termed, “Kristallnacht” (Night of Broken Glass). This night of violence included the pillaging and burning of synagogues, breaking the windows of Jewish-owned businesses, the looting of these stores, and many Jews were physically attacked. Also, approximately 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps. After WWII started in 1939, the Nazis began ordering Jews to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothing so that Jews could be easily recognized and targeted.
Ghettos- After the beginning of WWII, Nazis began ordering all Jews to live within certain, very specific, areas of big cities, called ghettos.
Jews were forced out of their homes and moved into smaller apartments, often shared with other families.
Some ghettos started out as 'open,' which meant that Jews could leave the area during the daytime but often had to be back within the ghetto by a curfew. Later, all ghettos became 'closed' but often had to be back within the ghetto curfew. Later, all ghettos became 'closed' which meant that Jews were trapped within the confines of the ghetto and not allowed to leave.
A few of the major ghettos were located in the cities of Bialystok, Kovno, Lodz, Minsk, Riga, Vilna and Warsaw.
In most ghettos, Nazis ordered the Jews to establish a Judenrat (A Jewish council) to both administer Nazi demands and to regulate the internal life of the ghetto.
Nazis would then order deportations from the ghettos. In some of the large ghettos, 1,000 people per day were loaded up in trains and sent to either a concentration camp or a death camp.
To get them to cooperate, the Nazis told the Jews they were being transported to another place for labor.
When the Nazis decided to kill the remaining Jews in a ghetto, they would 'liquidate' a ghetto by boarding the last Jews in the ghetto on trains.
When the Nazis attempted to liquidate the Warsaw Ghetto on April 13, 1943, the remaining Jews fought back in what has become known as the Warsaw Ghetoo Uprising. The Jewish resistance fighters held out against the entire Nazi regime for 28 days-- longer than many European countries had been able to withstand Nazi conquest.
Concentration and Extermination Camps- Although many people refer to all Nazi camps as 'concentration camps,' there were actually a number of different kinds of camps, including concentration camps, extermination camps, labor camps, prisoner-of-war camps, and transit camps.
One of the first concentration camps was Dachau, which opened on March 20, 1933.
From 1933 until 1938, most of the prisoners in the concentration camps were politcal prisoners (i.e. people who spoke or acted in some way against Hitler or the Nazis) and people the Nazis labeled as 'asocial.'
After Kristallnacht, in 1938, the persecution of Jews became more organized. This led to the exponential increase in the number of Jews sent to concentration camps.
Life within Nazi concentration camps was horrible. Prisoners were forced to do hard physical labor and yet given tiny rations. Prisoners slept three or more people per crowded wooden bunk (no matters or pillow). Torture within concentration camps was common and deaths were frequent.
At a number of Nazi concentration camps, Nazi doctors conducted medical experiments on prisoners against their will.
While concentration camps were meant to work and starve prisoners to death, extermination camps (also known as death camps) were built for the sole purpose of killing large groups of people quickly and efficiently.
The Nazis built six extermination camps: Chelmo, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Auschwitz and Majdanek. (Auschwitz and Majdanek were both concentration and extermination camps).
Prisoners transported to these extermination camps were told to undress to take a shower. Rather than a shower, the prisoners were herded into gas chambers and killed. (At Chelmo, the prisoners were herded into gas vans instead of gas chambers).
Auschwitz was the largest concentration and extermination camp built. It is estimated that 1.1 million people were killed there.

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Origins of the Cold War

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The Soviet Union

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Eastern Europe

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1968-1991: The Fall of Communism

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Western Europe

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1945-1968: Toward the European Union

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