World History Midterm

Front 1

Agricultural Revolution/ Neolithic Revolution

Back 1

Nomadic bands learned how to farm and domesticate their animals. They settled into permanent villages and developed a new range of skills and tools. These farmers eventually created the first calendars. Used buffalo and oxen to plow fields.

Front 2

5 Themes of Geography

Back 2

Location: tells where a place is on the surface of the earth. Latitude measures distance north or south of the equater while Longitude measures distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. Relative location is where one place is located in relation to another.
Place: the physical features and human characteristics of a place. Physical features include landforms, bodies of water, climate, soil quality, resources, and plant and animal life. Human characteristics include where most people live and their economic activities, religious beliefs, and languages.
Human-Environment Interaction: people interacting with their environment. Farmers used water from rivers to irrigate their crops. European settlers cut down trees to clear land for farms.
Movement: movement of people, goods, and ideas. People followed buffalo for food. People also have migrated to cities for jobs.
Region: the world is divided into regions. Some are based on physical characteristics, while others are defined by political, economic, or cultural feautures.

Front 3

Cultural Diffusion

Back 3

The spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one people to another.

Front 4

Cuneiform

Back 4

Earliest form of writing. It involved using a reed pen to make wedge-shaped marks of clay tablets.

Front 5

Nile River

Back 5

The river flooded yearly. People built dikes, reservoirs, and irrigation ditches to channels the rising river and store water for dry season. The river attracted Stone Age Farmers.

Front 6

Huang He River

Back 6

Gets its name from the loess, or fine windblown yellow soil, that it carries eastward from Siberia to Mongolia. As the loess settles, water level rises. Peasants constantly built and repaired dikes that kept the river from flooding. Shang dynasty gained control. Monarchy. Most people were peasants. Prayed to many gods and nature spirits.

Front 7

Indus River

Back 7

Gives India it's name. Carries melting snow from the mountains to the plains, making agriculture possible.Covered the largest area of any civilization until Persia. Had a well-organized government. Laid out in a grid pattern. Most people were farmers. First people to cultivate cotton and weave it into cloth. They were polytheistic.

Front 8

Hieroglyphics

Back 8

Were used to keep important records. Priests ans scripes carved them on stone. The earliest hieroglyphics were pictograms that depicted objects. The Egyptians then added ideograms, pictures that symbolized an idea or action.

Front 9

Mesopotamia

Back 9

Located in the Fertile Crescent. Tigris and Euphrates define Mesopotamia, which means "between the rivers".

Front 10

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

Back 10

Flow from the highlands of modern-day Turkey through Iraq into the Persian Gulf. They frequently rose, created floods that washed away top soil and mud villages.

Front 11

Sumer

Back 11

Lacked building materials, so built with bricks made out of clay, shaped in wooden molds and dried in the sun. Ur and Erech were made out of these bricks. Trade brought riches to Sumer. Rival city-states battled for control over land/power. A ruler led the army and enforced laws. Employed scribes to collect taxes and keep records. Ruler was the chief servant to the gods. Every Sumerian city-state had a distinct social hierarchy. They were polytheistic. Ziggurat was a pyramid-temple that soared towards the heavens. Earliest form of writing called cuneiform.

Front 12

Hammurabi

Back 12

King of Babylon. Brought much of Mesopotamia under his control. Published the Code of Hammurabi. His goals were to "cause justice to prevail in the land / To destroy the wicked and evil / That the strong may not oppress the weak." First to codify, or write down, all of the laws. Crime and Punishment (criminal law) & Civil Law.

Front 13

Phoenicians

Back 13

Gained their fame as sailors and traders. Best known for manufacturing and trade. Made glass. Produced a purple dye. Gave us the alphabet. Developed a system of 22 symbols for consonant sounds.

Front 14

Persians

Back 14

Persian kings pursued a policy of tolerance to their captives. Darius divided Persia into provinces, headed by a governor called a satrap. Built/repaired hundreds of miles of road. Set up weights and measures to improve trade. Barter/money economy.

Front 15

Alexander the Great and his achievments

Back 15

Won his first victory against the Persians at the Granicus River. Crossed the Hindu Kush to India. In India, his troops faced soldiers mounted on war elephants. HE fell into a sudden fever. After his death, three generas divided the empire.

Front 16

Hellenistic Civilization

Back 16

Employed armies of architects and artists. Temples, palaces, and other public buildings were large. Stoicism, founded by Zeno. Preached high moral standards, such as the idea of protecting the rights of fellow humans. Everyone is morally equal.

Front 17

Hellenic

Back 17

Hellenic means “purely Greek.” They believed in the golden mean, beauty, and perfection. The Greeks were involved with their particular polis and stayed close to home. Tragedies were popular and most religions were polytheistic.

Front 18

Alexander the Great

Back 18

Alexander became king at 20 years old. He won his first victory against the Persians at eh Granicus River. In 331 BC he took Babylon. With most of Persia under his control, he headed east. In 326 BC his troops came face to face with soldiers on elephants. They claimed they were tired and refused to go any further. He died of sudden fever and said his kingdom should go “to the strongest.”

Front 19

Pythagoras

Back 19

Pythagoras derived a formula (to calculate the relationship between the sides of a right angle.

Front 20

Homer

Back 20

Homer was a blind poet who wandered from city to city singing of heroic deeds around 750 BC. He wrote two famous books, The Iliad (story of Trojan War) and the Odyssey (the struggles of Greek hero Odysseus)

Front 21

Socrates

Back 21

Socrates was an outspoken critic of the Sophists. He developed the Socratic Method, which is posing a series of questions to his students and challenge them to examine the implications of their answers. This was a way to help others seek truth and self-knowledge. At 70 years old he was put to trial and was condemned to death by drinking poison.

Front 22

Plato

Back 22

Plato was Socrates’ favorite student. Socrates left him with a distrust of democracy and left Athens for 10 years. When he returned he set up the Academy where he taught and wrote his own ideas and emphasized the importance of reason. In The Republic he described his vision of an ideal state. He divided the ideal society into three classes: 1) Workers produce the necessities of life 2) Soldiers defend and 3) Philosophers to rule. He also thought that men surpassed women, but that some women were superior to men

Front 23

Aristotle

Back 23

Aristotle was Plato’s most famous student. He analyzed all forms of government and thought they all had their flaws and good parts. He was extremely suspicious of democracy. IN his view, good conduct meant pursuing the “golden mean,” a moderate course between extremes. He also set up a school called the Lyceum, for the study of all branches of knowledge

Front 24

Delian League

Back 24

The Delian League was formed as a result of Athen’s victory over the Persian Empire in the Persian Wars. They wanted to continue the struggle against Persia so the Athenians formed an alliance with other Greek city-states.

Front 25

Peloponnesian League

Back 25

The Peloponnesian League was formed by Sparta and other enemies of Athens to counter the Delian League.

Front 26

Athens

Back 26

Athens was located in Attica, just north of Peloponnesus. Many merchants and nobles resented the power of nobles. Foreign artisans and farmers also demanded change. Slowly, Athens moved toward democracy, government by the people. In 594 BC, Solon was appointed archon. He outlawed debt slavery and freed those who had already been sold to slavery for debt. He opened high offices to more citizens and granted citizenship to foreigners and gave the Athenian Assembly more to say in important decisions. He encouraged the export of wine and oil. Widespread unrest led to the rise of tyrants, people who gained power by force. Athenian tyrant Pisistratus seized power in 546 BC and gave farmers loans and land and started new building projects to save the poor. In 507 BC the reformer Cleisthenes broadened the rule of ordinary citizen’s government. He set up the Council of 500, who prepared laws and supervised the day-to-day work of government. Only male citizens could participate in government though. Women had no share in public life and little to no education. Boys attended schools and studied to become skilled public speakers.

Front 27

Sparta

Back 27

The Spartans were Dorians who conquered Laconia. The invaders turned the conquered people into state-owned slaves, or helots and were forced to work the land. (GOVERNMENT) The Spartan government included two kings and a council of elders who advised the monarchs. An assembly made up of citizens approved major decisions. Citizens were male, native born Spartans. From childhood, a Spartan prepared to be part of the military. Official examined newborns to see if they were healthy, and the sick ones were left to die. (CITIZENSHIP) At age seven, boys began training for a lifetime in the military. They had a coarse diet, hard exercise, and rigid discipline. At age 20, they could marry but they had to continue to live in barracks for 10 years and there for 40. At age 30, they took place in the assembly. (WOMEN) Women also had a rigorous upbringing. They exercised and strengthened their bodies because they were expected to produce healthy baby boys. They could inherit property but still had to obey their fathers and husbands. The Spartans isolated themselves from other Greeks. They also looked down on trade and wealth and had little use for the arts and new ideas.

Front 28

Mycenaean

Back 28

Mycenaean people dominated the Aegean world from 1400 BC to 1200 BC. They were vast sea traders. They lived in separate city-states on the mainland. In each city-state, a warrior king built a thick-walled fortress from which he ruled the surrounding villages. (TROJAN WAR) They are best remembered for their part in the Trojan War. Some believe that they had a conflict with Troy over trading. Others believe that Trojan prince Paris kidnapped Helen, wife of the Greek king, and the Mycenaean people sailed to Troy to rescue her.

Front 29

Minoan

Back 29

Minoans were an early civilization located in Crete. They reached its height between 1750 BC and 1500 BC. Their success was based on trade. (KNOSSOS) The rulers live in a palace called Knossos. It housed rooms for the royal family, banquet halls, working areas for the artisans, and religious shrines. The walls are covered with frescoes, watercolor paintings done on wet plaster. The civilization vanished about 1400 BC.

Front 30

Mandate of Heaven

Back 30

The idea of the Mandate of Heaven is known as the divine right to rule.

Front 31

Rosetta Stone

Back 31

After the New Kingdom declined, Egyptians forgot the meanings of ancient hieroglyphics. Not until the early 1800s did a French scholar, Jean Champollion, unravel the mysterious writings on Egypt’s greatest monuments. He managed to decipher the Rosetta Stone. This stone has the same message carved in three different forms of script – hieroglyphics, demotic, and Greek.

Front 32

Tutankaton

Back 32

In 1922, the British archeologist Howard Carter unearthed the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamen, the son-in-law of Akhenaton. It had remained untouched for more than 3,000 years. The body of the 18 year old “King Tut” had been placed in a solid gold coffin, nested within richly decorated outer coffins.

Front 33

Akhenaton

Back 33

Akhenaton was a young pharaoh who challenged the powerful priests of Amon-Re. He devoted his life to worshiping Aton, a minor god whose symbol was the sun’s disk. With the support of his wife, Queen Nefertiti, Akhenaton tried to sweep away all other gods in favor of Aton.

Front 34

Ramses

Back 34

Ramses II was known as the most powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Between 1290 and 1224 BC, he pushed Egyptian rule northward as far as Syria. In the battle against the Hittites of Asia Minor, only the desperate bravery of Ramses prevented a crushing defeat. After years of fighting, the Egyptians and Hittites signed a peace treaty, the first such document known to have survived in history.

Front 35

Cleopatra

Back 35

During the Hellenistic period, women were no longer restricted to their homes. In Egypt, the able and clever queen Cleopatra came to rule in her own right.

Front 36

Hatshepsut

Back 36

Hatshepsut was a woman monarch of the New Kingdom who exercised all the rights of a pharaoh. From 1503 to 1482 BC, she encouraged trade with eastern Mediterranean lands along the Red Sea coast of Africa.

Front 37

Hieroglyphics

Back 37

Hieroglyphics is the ancient Egyptian’s form of picture writing. They were used to keep important records. The Egyptians later added ideograms, or pictures that symbolized an idea or action.

Front 38

Pericles

Back 38

Under the statesman Pericles, the economy of Athens thrived and the government vecame more democratic. He started a direct democracy. The Athenian assembly met several times a month and had at least 6000 members. Pericles believed all male citizens regardless of wealth and class should take part in government. Athens, therefore, began to pay a stipend, or a fixed salary, to those who held public office. Athenians served on juries of hundreds or thousands. Male citizens over 30 were chosen by lot to serve the jury for a year. He gave a speech named the Funeral Oration in which he pointed out that in Athens, power rested in the hands of “not of a minority but of the whole people.” He also rebuilt the Acropolis and turned Athens the cultural center of Greece.

Front 39

Marathon

Back 39

Darius I was furious at Athens’s role in the uprising so he sent huge forces to punish Athens. His army landed at Marathon. The Persians outnumbered Athenians yet their army was fierce and they caused the Persians to retreat. Themistocles then urged Athenians to build a fleet of warships and prepare other defenses.

Front 40

Rome

Back 40

The Romans shared the Italian peninsula with Greek colonists in southern Italy and the Etruscans who lived north of Rome. The Romans drove out their Etruscan ruler in 509 BC. The Romans set up a new form of government in which some officials were chosen by the people. They called it a republic, or “thing of the people.”

Front 41

Plebeians

Back 41

The plebeians were the farmers, merchants, artisans, and trader who made up the bulk of the population, but had little influence. The plebeians first breakthrough was in 450 BC, when the government had the laws of Rome inscribed on 12 tablets and set up in the Forum. In time, plebeians gained the right to elect their own officials, called tribunes, to protect their interests.

Front 42

Patricians

Back 42

Patricians are members of the landholding upper class. The Senate’s 300 members were all patricians.

Front 43

Caesar

Back 43

Out of the chaos from the decline of the Republic emerged Julius Caesar. For a time, Caesar dominated Roman politics with Pompey. Then, in 59 BC, Caesar set out with his army to make new conquests. After nine years he captured Gaul (present day France). Pompey was fearful of Caesar’s fame which led to civil wars, but Caesar eventually crushed Pompey and his supporters. Between 48 and 44 BC, Caesar made many reforms. He launched a program of public works to employ the jobless and gave public land to the poor. He also reorganized the government of the provinces and granted Roman citizenship to more people. Caesar’s most lasting reform was the introduction of a new calendar based on Egyptian knowledge. Caesar’s enemies worried that he planned to make himself king of Rome. So, they plotted against him and in March 44 BC, as Caesar arrived in the senate, his enemies stabbed him to death.

Front 44

Dictator

Back 44

A dictator is a ruler who has complete control over a government. In ancient Rome a dictator was chosen to rule for six months in times of emergency.

Front 45

Octavian

Back 45

Octavian defeated Mark Antony in 31 BC and gained power over Rome. The senate gave him the title of Augustus. He exercised absolute power and named his successor. Under his ruler between 31 BC and 14 AC, the 500 year old Republic came to an end and the Roman Empire began to rise. He laid the foundation for a stable government and created an efficient, well trained civil service system to enforce the laws. To make the tax system more fair, he ordered a census, or population count, to be taken in the empire.

Front 46

Marcus Aurelius

Back 46

Marcus Aurelius was the last emperor during the Pax Romana. He read philosophy while on military campaigns and was close to Plato’s ideal of a philosopher-king.

Front 47

Pantheon

Back 47

The Pantheon is the most famous domed structure. It is a temple to all Roman gods and stands in Rome.

Front 48

Theodosius

Back 48

Theodosius is an emperor who made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. The cross and fish were Christian symbols.

Front 49

Diocletian

Back 49

Emperor Diocletian set out to restore order in 284. To make the empire easier to govern, he divided it into two parts. He kept control of the wealthier, eastern part of the empire and appointed a co-emperor to rule to the western provinces. He surrounded himself with elaborate ceremonies. He took steps to end the empire’s economic decay. To slow inflation he fixed prices for goods and services. Other laws forced farmers to remain on the land and in cities, sons were required to follow their father’s occupations.

Front 50

Punic Wars

Back 50

Between 264 and 146 BC, Rome fought three wars with Carthage called the Punic Wars. In the first Punic War, Rome defeated Carthage and won Sicily, Carsica, and Sardinia. The Carthaginians sought revenge in the second Punic War. In 218 BC, Carthaginian general, Hannibal, led his army on a great march into Italy. For the first 15 years the Carthaginians moved across Italy winning battle after battle. However they failed to capture Rome because the Romans attacked Carthage. Carthage gave up all its land except the ones in Africa. In the third Punic War, Rome completely destroyed Carthage. Survivors were killed or sold into slavery

Front 51

Carthage

Back 51

Carthage is a north city-state on the North African coast. Settles by North Africans and Phoenician traders, Carthage ruled over an empire that stretched across North Africa and the western Mediterranean. It lost all three Punic Wars against Rome and lost all their lands except the ones in Africa.

Front 52

Hadrian

Back 52

Hadrian is one of ‘good emperors’ after the rule of Augustus. He codified Roman law, making the same for all the provinces. He also had soldiers build a wall across Britain to hold back attackers from the non-Roman north.

Front 53

Hannibal

Back 53

Hannibal was the Carthaginian general that led the Carthaginian army during the Punic Wars.

Front 54

Pax Romana

Back 54

The 200 year span that began with Augustus and ended with Marcus Aurelius is known as the Pax Romana or “Roman Peace.” During that time, Roman rule brought peace, order, unity, and prosperity to lands stretching from the Euphrates River in the east to Britain in the west. Roman legions maintained and protected roads and trade flowed freely to and from distant lands in Africa and Asia. From Africa came grain, ivory, gold, lions, and other wild animals, From India came spices, cotton, and precious stones. Trade caravans traveled along the Silk Road, bringing silk and other goods from China.

Front 55

Mare Nostrum

Back 55

(our sea) the Mediterranean to the ancient Romans.

Front 56

Triumvirate

Back 56

A triumvirate is when three major kings rule together.

Front 57

Fall of Rome

Back 57

(MILITARY CAUSES) The most obvious cause of Rome’s fall is the Germanic invasions. Because of the weakness of Rome’s army they hired mercenaries, foreign soldiers fighting for pay. Although the mercenaries were defending Rome’s boarders, they felt very little loyalty to Rome. (POLITICAL CAUSES) As the government became more oppressive and authoritarian, it lost the support of its people. Frequent civil wars over succession to the imperial throne undermined loyalty. Dividing the empire at the time when it was under attack may have weakened the empire beyond its repair. The richer eastern Roman Empire did little to help the west.
(SOCIAL CAUSES) The decline of the values of patriotism, discipline, and devotion to duty on which the empire was built played an important in the decline of the Empire.

Front 58

Constantine

Back 58

In 312, General Constantine gained the throne. He continued Diocletian’s reforms. He granted toleration to Christians. This encouraged the rapid growth of Christianity in the empire and guaranteed its future success. Then he built a new capital, Constantinople, on the Bosporus. By making his capital there, Constantine made the eastern portion of the empire the center of power. The Western Roman Empire was in decline, but the eastern Roman Empire would prosper for centuries to come.

Front 59

Rome and Constantinople

Back 59

Rome was the capital of the Western Roman Empire while Constantinople was made the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire by Constantine.

Front 60

Paul

Back 60

aul had never seen Jesus and was among those who persecuted Jesus’ followers. Then one day, Paul had a vision in which Jesus spoke to him. He immediately converted to the new faith and he decided he would spread the teachings of Jesus beyond Jewish communities to gentiles, or non-Jews. He set up churches from Mesopotamia to Rome.

Front 61

Edict of Milan

Back 61

The persecution of Christians ended in 313, when Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan. It granted freedom of the worship to all citizens of the Roman Empire.

Front 62

Justinian

Back 62

The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest size under the emperor Justinian who ruled from 527 to 565. To restore Roman glory, he launched a program to beautify Constantinople. His great triumph was the church of Hagia Sophia (“Holy Wisdom”). Justinian is best remembered for his reform of the law. He set up a commission to collect, revise, and organize all the laws of ancient Rome. The result was the Corpus Juris Civilis or more popularly known as Justinian’s Code. Justinian used the law to unite the empire under his control. He ruled as an autocrat, or sole ruler with complete authority. The emperor also had power over the Church.

Front 63

Theodora

Back 63

Theodora was Justinian’s wife. She was a shrewd politician and served as adviser and co-ruler to Justinian and even pursued her own politics.

Front 64

Bosporus and Dardanelles

Back 64

The Bosporus Strait connects the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The Dardanelles Strait separated Europe from Asia Minor.

Front 65

Seljuk Turks

Back 65

As the Byzantine Empire declined, the Seljuk Turks advanced across Asia Minor.

Front 66

Justinian Code

Back 66

Justinian Code was a massive collection of laws passed by Roman assemblies and decreed by Roman emperors, as well as legal writings of Roman judges and a handbook for students. By the 1100s, it had reached Western Europe. There, both the Roman Catholic Church and its medieval monarchs modeled their laws on its principles.

Front 67

Schism

Back 67

A schism is a permanent division in a church.

Front 68

Patriarch

Back 68

In the Byzantine Empire, a patriarch was the highest church official in a major city.

Front 69

Icon

Back 69

An icon is a holy image of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or saint venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Front 70

Chandragupta

Back 70

Chandragupta first gained power in the Ganges Valley. He then conquered northern India. From 321 to 185 BC, The Maurya dynasty ruled over a vast, united empire. He maintained order through a well organized bureaucracy. His rule was effective but harsh.

Front 71

Delhi Sultanate

Back 71

In the late 1100s, the sultan of Ghur defeated Hindu armies across the northern plain. He made Delhi his capital. From there, his successors organized a sultanate, or land ruled by a sultan. Muslim rule brought changes to Indian government and society. Sultans introduced Muslim traditions of government. Many Turks, Persians, and Arabs migrated to India to serve as soldiers or officials. Trade between India and the Muslim world increased. During the Mongol raids, Persian and Greek learning was brought to India from Baghdad. But, in 1398, Tamerlane invaded India. He plundered the northern plain and smashed into Delhi, causing its decline.

Front 72

Sikhism

Back 72

Sikhism is the blend of Islamic and Hindu beliefs created by and Indian holy man, Nanak.

Front 73

Abraham

Back 73

Muslims believe that Abraham built the Kaaba in Mecca as the first house of worship for God.

Front 74

Diaspora

Back 74

The Greek word diaspora, which means “scattering,” refers to the fact that some Jews migrated and settled in various parts of the world.

Front 75

Torah

Back 75

The Torah is the sacred text of the Jews.

Front 76

Islam

Back 76

Islam is monotheistic, based on the belief in one God. The Quran is the sacred text of Islam. All Muslims accept five basic duties, known as the Five Pillars of Islam.

Front 77

5 Pillars of Islam

Back 77

The FIRST PILLAR is a declaration of faith. “There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Muslims believe that God sent other prophets, but that Muhammad was the last and greatest prophet. The SECOND PILLAR is daily prayer. After a ritual washing, Muslims face the holy city of Mecca to pray. Muslims often gather in houses of worship called mosques. The THIRD PILLAR is giving charity to the poor. The FOURTH PILLAR is fasting from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of Ramadan. The FIFTH PILLAR is the hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. All Muslims who are able are expected to visit the Kaaba at least once in their lives.

Front 78

Medina

Back 78

After faced with the threat of murder, Muhammad and his followers left Mecca for Yathrib, which was later named Medina or “city of the Prophet.”

Front 79

Mecca

Back 79

Mecca was the city where the prophet Muhammad was born. Also, in Mecca is where the Kaaba is located and all able Muslims are required to make a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Front 80

Hajj

Back 80

The Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca that every able Muslim must do.

Front 81

Jihad

Back 81

Some Muslims look on the jihad, or struggle in God’s service, as another duty.

Front 82

Quran

Back 82

To Muslims, the Quran contains the sacred word of God as revealed to Muhammad. It’s the final authority on all matters. It not only teaches about God but also provides a complete guide to life. Its ethical standards emphasize honesty, generosity, and social justice. Muslims believe that, in its original Arabic form, the Quran is the direct, unchangeable word of God.

Front 83

Kaaba

Back 83

The Kaaba in Mecca was the first house of worship for God.

Front 84

Sharia

Back 84

Muslim scholars developed an immense body of law interpreting the Quran and applying its teachings to daily life. The Sharia regulates moral conduct, family life, business practices, government, and other practices of a Muslim community. The Sharia doesn’t separate religious matters from criminal or civil law.

Front 85

Mosque

Back 85

A mosque is a house of worship where Muslims gather to pray daily.

Front 86

Sunni

Back 86

The Sunni felt that the caliph should be chosen by leaders in the Muslim community. Although the Sunni agreed that the caliph should be a pious Muslim, they viewed him simply as a leader, not as a religious authority.

Front 87

Dome of the Rock

Back 87

The Dome of the Rock is one of the holiest sites in the Muslim world. In the 690s it was built in Jerusalem above a rock from which Muslims believed Muhammad had risen into heaven.

Front 88

Shiite

Back 88

The Shiites believed that the only true successors to the Prophet were descendants of Muhammad’s daughter and son-in-law, Fatima and Ali. They believed the descendants of the Prophet were divinely inspired. Shiites eventually grew to admire martyrdom as a demonstration of their faith.

Front 89

Caliph

Back 89

A caliph is a successor of Muhammad

Front 90

Sufi

Back 90

A third tradition in Islam emerged with the Sufis, Muslim mystics who sought communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other rituals. Sufis were respected for the piety and miraculous powers.

Front 91

Safavid

Back 91

The Safavid shah, or king, was Abbas the Great. From 1588 to 1629, he centralized government and created a powerful military force modeled on the Ottoman janizaries. To strengthen the economy, Abbas reduced taxes on farmers and hearders and encouraged the growth of industry. He tolerated non-Muslims and valued their economic contributions. He built a new capital at Isfahan, a center of the international silk trade. Safavid glory slowly faded after the death of Shah Abbas.

Front 92

Delhi Sultanate

Back 92

In the late 1100s, the sultan of Ghur defeated Hindu armies across the northern plain. He made Delhi his capital. From there, his successors organized a sultanate, or land ruled by a sultan. Muslim rule brought changes to Indian government and society. Sultans introduced Muslim traditions of government. Many Turks, Persians, and Arabs migrated to India to serve as soldiers or officials. Trade between India and the Muslim world increased. During the Mongol raids, Persian and Greek learning was brought to India from Baghdad. But, in 1398, Tamerlane invaded India. He plundered the northern plain and smashed into Delhi, causing its decline.

Front 93

Suleiman

Back 93

he Ottoman Empire enjoyed its golden age under the sultan Suleiman, who ruled from 1520 to 1566. He modernized the army and conquered many new lands. He extended Ottoman rule eastward into Mesopotamia, and also into Kurdistan and Georgia in the Caucasus Mountain region. He was also able to gain control of nearly all of Hungary through diplomacy and warfare. He ruled the largest most powerful empire in both Europe and the Middle East for centuries. He had four titles: Suleiman the Magnificent, Lawgiver, Emperor, and Protector of Sacred Places.

Front 94

Hindu

Back 94

Hinduism has no single founder and no single sacred text. It grew out of the overlapping beliefs of the diverse groups who settled India. They believe that the universe is part of the unchanging, all-powerful spiritual force called Brahman. To Hindus, Brahman is too complex a concept for people to understand, so they worship a variety of gods that give a concrete form to Brahman.

Front 95

Vedas

Back 95

Over several thousands of years, Hindu teachings were recorded in sacred texts such ad Vedas and Upanishads.

Front 96

Reincarnation

Back 96

Hindus believe in reincarnation, or the rebirth of the soul in another bodily form. Reincarnation allows people to continue working toward moksha, or union with Brahman, through several lifetimes.

Front 97

Karma

Back 97

Hindus believe a person can come closer to achieving moksha by obeying the law of karma. Karma refers to all the actions of a person’s life that affect his or her fate in the next life. People who live virtuously earn good karma and are reborn at a higher level of existence.

Front 98

Dharma

Back 98

To escape the wheel of fate, Hinduism stresses the importance of dharma, the religious and moral duties of an individual. By obeying one’s dharma, a person acquires merit for the next life.

Front 99

Caste

Back 99

Everyone is born into a certain caste and cannot move up to a higher caste.

Front 100

Pariah

Back 100

An outcast or a member of an indigenous people of southern India originally functioning as ceremonial drummers but later having a low caste or no caste.

Front 101

Buddhism

Back 101

Siddhartha Gautama founded a new religion called Buddhism. His teachings eventually spread across Asia to become the core beliefs of one of the world’s most influential religions.

Front 102

Siddhartha

Back 102

Gautama was born about 566 BC to a high-caste family. To keep him from becoming a wandering holy man, his father kept him in the palace, surrounded by comfort and luxury. One day, as Gautama rode beyond the palace gardens, he saw a sick person, and old person, and a dead body. For the first time, he became aware of human suffering. So he then left his palace and set out to discover “the realm of life where there is neither suffering nor death.” After wandering for years, he sat under a tree and was determined to stay there until he understood the mystery of life. After 48 days he suddenly believed he understood the cause and cure for suffering and sorrow. He then named himself the Buddha or the “Enlightened One.”

Front 103

4 Noble Truths

Back 103

1. All life is full of suffering, pain, and suffering / 2. The cause of suffering is the desire for things that are really illusions, such as riches, power, and a long life / 3. The only cure for suffering is to overcome desire / 4. The way to overcome desire is to follow the Eightfold Path.

Front 104

Eightfold Path

Back 104

The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as “right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right contemplation.

Front 105

Enlightenment

Back 105

To achieve enlightenment the first two steps involve understanding the Four Noble Truths and committing oneself to the Eightfold Path. Next, a person has to live a moral life, avoiding evil words and actions. Finally, through meditation, a person might at last achieve enlightenment.

Front 106

Tripitaka

Back 106

After the Buddha’s death, some of his followers collected his teachings into a sacred text called the Tripitaka, or “Three Baskets of Wisdom.”

Front 107

Legalism

Back 107

Legalism was founded by Hanfeizi. According to him, “the nature of man is evil. His goodness is acquired.” He declared greed was the motive for most actions and the cause of most conflicts. He insisted the only way to achieve order was to pass strict laws and impose harsh punishments. His laws were so cruel that later generations despised Legalism.

Front 108

Confucianism

Back 108

Confucius was born in 551 BC and taught that harmony resulted when people accepted their place in society. He stressed 5 key relationships: father to son, elder brother to younger brother, husband to wife, ruler to subject, and friend to friend. Except for friendship, none of these relationships were equal. He put filial piety, or respect for parents, above all else. He said the best ruler should be virtuous and educated.

Front 109

Daoism

Back 109

The founder of Daoism was known as Laozi or “Old Master.” He focused on Dao or “the way” of the universe. Daoists rejected conflict and strife. They also viewed government as unnatural. Their sacred text was The Way of Virtue.

Front 110

Orthodox Christianity

Back 110

Since early times, differences had emerged over Church leadership. Although the Byzantine emperor was not a priest, he controlled Church affairs and appointed the patriarch in Constantinople. Byzantine Christians rejected the pope’s high claim to authority over all Christians. Further differences developed. The Byzantine clergy kept their right to marry. Greek was the language of the Byzantine Church. The chief Byzantine holy day was Easter. Many Byzantine Christians prayed to images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints. In the 700s, however, a Byzantine emperor outlawed the veneration of icons. The ban set off violent battles within the empire. In 1054, other controversies provoked a schism, or permanent split, between the Byzantine and the Roman Catholic Churches. The pope and the patriarch excommunicated each other.

Front 111

Hagia Sophia

Back 111

The Hagia Sophia was a church built Justinian meaning “Holy Wisdom.”

Front 112

Chivalry

Back 112

Chivalry is a code of conduct for knights during the Middle Ages

Front 113

Feudalism

Back 113

Feudalism was a loosely organized system of rule in which powerful local lords divided their landholdings among lesser lords. In exchange, these lesser lords, or vassals, pledged service and loyalty to the greater lord. The relationship between lords and vassals was established by custom and tradition and by an exchange of pledges known as the feudal contract. A lord granted his vassal a fief, or estate. Everyone had a place in feudal society. Below monarchs were lords who held the largest fiefs. Each of these lords had vassals, and these vassals had vassals.

Front 114

Manoralism

Back 114

The heart of the medieval economy was the manor, or lord’s estate. Most manors included one or more villages and the surroundings lands. Peasants lived and worked on the manor. Most peasants on a manor were serfs, or bound to the land. Serfs were not slaves but they still were not free and were bound to the land. Peasants had to work several days a week farming for the lord’s land. They were allowed to farm a couple acres for themselves and were guaranteed food, housing, and land. The manor was generally self-sufficient, that is, peasants produced almost everything they needed. For most peasants, life was harsh. Men, women, and children worked long hours. A peasant family had a simple diet of black bread and vegetables. Very few peasants lived passed the age of 35.

Front 115

Crusades – Cause and Effects

Back 115

(CAUSE) The Byzantine emperor Alexius I asked Pope Urban II for Christina knights to help him fight the Turks. By 1096, thousands of knights were on their way to the Holy Land. Religious zeal and other factors motivated the crusaders. The pope had mixed motives too. He hoped to increase his power in Europe and perhaps heal the schism between the Roman and Byzantine Churches. Only the First Crusade came close to achieving its goals. The Crusades continued, off and on, for over 200 years. (EFFECTS) The crusades increased trade. Crusaders introduced fabrics, spices, and perfumes from the Middle East to Europe. The Crusades further encouraged the growth of a money economy. They also helped increase the power of feudal monarchs. Rulers won new right to levy taxes in order to support the Crusades. The Crusades also brought papal power to its height.

Front 116

Lay Investiture

Back 116

Lay investiture is the creation of bishops by anyone who is a not a member of the clergy.

Front 117

Indulgences

Back 117

Indulgences, in the Roman Catholic Church, pardon for sins committed during a person’s lifetime.

Front 118

Magna Carta

Back 118

In 1215, a group of rebellious barons cornered John and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, or a greater charter. In this document, the king affirmed a long list of feudal rights. Among the most significant of these clauses was a clause protecting every freeman from arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, and other legal actions. The king also agreed not to raise new taxes without first consulting his Great Council of lords and clergy.

Front 119

Henry II of England

Back 119

In 1154, a well educated king, Henry II, inherited the throne. He broadened the system of royal justice. He found ways to expand customs into law. The decisions of the royal courts became the foundation of English common law, a legal system based on custom and court rulings. Under his rule, England also developed an early jury system. When traveling justices visited an area, local officials collected a jury, or a group of mean sworn to speak the truth. These early juries determined which cases should be brought to trial and were the ancestors of today grand jury. But Henry claimed the right to try clergy in royal courts which led to a bitter dispute with the Church. He had a conflict with Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Cantebury that simmered for years. Henry was really upset with the archbishop and four hot headed knights murdered the archbishop in his own cathedral in 1170.

Front 120

William the Conqueror

Back 120

Duke William of Normandy fought for the throne against King Edward’s brother-in-law Harold to rule. He raised an army and won the backing of the pope. He then sailed across the English Channel. At the Battle of Hastings, William and his Norman knights triumphed over Harold. On Christmas Day 1066, William the Conqueror assumed the crown of England.

Front 121

Thomas Aquinas

Back 121

The writings of Averroes and Maimonides influenced the scholastic Thomas Aquinas. In a monumental work, Summa Theologica, Aquinas examined Christian teachings in the light of reason. Faith and reason, he concluded, existed in harmony.

Front 122

Thomas a’Becket

Back 122

He was the archbishop of Cantebury during the time of Henry II of England. He had a conflict with Henry and was murdered in his own cathedral by four of Henry’s knights.

Front 123

Babylonian Captivity

Back 123

In 1309, Pope Clement V had moved the papal court the Avignon, France. It remained there for about 70 years under French domination. This period is often called the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, referring to the time when the ancient Israelites were held captive in Babylon.

Front 124

Craft Guilds

Back 124

In time, artisans came to resent powerful merchants. They organized craft guilds. Each guild represented workers in one occupation.

Front 125

Merchant Guilds

Back 125

Merchant guilds dominated town life, passing laws and levying taxes. They also decided whether to spend funds to pave the streets with cobblestones, build protective walls, or raise a new town hall.

Front 126

Charters

Back 126

In the Middle Ages, a charter was a written document that set out the rights and privileges of a town.

Front 127

Dante

Back 127

Dante Alighieri is the Italian poet who wrote the Divine Comedy. The poem takes the reader on an imaginary journey into hell and purgatory, where the soul awaits forgiveness.

Front 128

St. Benedict

Back 128

In about 530, a monk named Benedict organized a monastery of Monte Cassino in Southern Italy. In time, Benedictine Rule was used by monasteries and convents across Europe. Under Benedictine Rule, monks and nuns took three vows. The first was obedience to the abbot or abbess. The second was poverty, and the third was chastity.

Front 129

St. Francis

Back 129

When Francis was a young man, he loved going to parties, wearing fine clothes, and writing lively poems and songs. Then, in his mid-20s, he heard a voice speak to him while he was praying. He decided to give up all his wealth and accept a life of poverty and charity. He was soon joined by a small group of followers – the first Franciscan firars – and together they served the poor and the sick.

Front 130

Friars

Back 130

A friar was a monk who traveled throughout Europe’s growing towns to preach to the poor.

Front 131

Battle of Tours

Back 131

European Christians were stunned when Muslim armies overran Christina lands from Palestine to North Africa to Spain. When a Muslim army crossed into France, Charles Martel rallied Frankish warriors. At the Battle of Tours in 732, Christian warriors triumphed. Muslims advanced no farther into Western Europe, although they continued to rule most of Spain.

Front 132

Franks

Back 132

Between 400 and 700, Germanic tribes carved Western Europe into small kingdoms. The strongest kingdom to emerge was that of the Franks. In 486, Clovis, king of the Franks, conquered the former Roman province of Gaul. He ruled his lands according to Frankish custom but did preserve much of the Roman legacy in Gaul. Clovis took an important step when he converted to Christianity. Not only did he earn the support of the people Gaul, but he also gained a powerful ally in the Christian Church of Rome.

Front 133

Charles Martel

Back 133

Charles Martel rallied Frankish warriors to fight against the Muslim invaders. At the Battle of Tours in 732, the Christian warriors triumphed.

Front 134

Clovis

Back 134

Clovis was the king of the Franks. In 486, he conquered the former Roman province of Gaul.

Front 135

Charlemagne

Back 135

In 800, Charlemagne built an empire reaching across France, Germany, and a part of Italy. Pope Leo III called on Charlemagne for help against rebellious nobles in Rome. He had his Frankish armies march south and they crushed the rebellion. The pope showed his gratitude by placing a crown on Charlemagne’s head proclaiming him Emperor of the Romans. The crowning of Charlemagne helped widen the split between the eastern and western Christian worlds. He tried to create a united Christian Europe. He appointed nobles to rule local regions. To check on these provincial rulers, he sent out officials called miss dominici. He also founded the school at Aachen under the direction of scholar Alcuin of York.

Front 136

Treaty of Verdun

Back 136

After Charlemagne died in 814, his empire soon fell apart. His heirs battled for power for nearly 30 years. Finally, in 843, Charlemagne’s grandsons drew up the Treaty of Verdun, which split the empire into three regions.

Front 137

Battle of Tours

Back 137

European Christians were stunned when Muslim armies overran Christina lands from Palestine to North Africa to Spain. When a Muslim army crossed into France, Charles Martel rallied Frankish warriors. At the Battle of Tours in 732, Christian warriors triumphed. Muslims advanced no farther into Western Europe, although they continued to rule most of Spain.

Front 138

Henry II

Back 138

In 1154, a well educated king, Henry II, inherited the throne. He broadened the system of royal justice. He found ways to expand customs into law. The decisions of the royal courts became the foundation of English common law, a legal system based on custom and court rulings. Under his rule, England also developed an early jury system. When traveling justices visited an area, local officials collected a jury, or a group of mean sworn to speak the truth. These early juries determined which cases should be brought to trial and were the ancestors of today grand jury. But Henry claimed the right to try clergy in royal courts which led to a bitter dispute with the Church. He had a conflict with Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Cantebury that simmered for years. Henry was really upset with the archbishop and four hot headed knights murdered the archbishop in his own cathedral in 1170.

Front 139

William the Conqueror

Back 139

Duke William of Normandy fought for the throne against King Edward’s brother-in-law Harold to rule. He raised an army and won the backing of the pope. He then sailed across the English Channel. At the Battle of Hastings, William and his Norman knights triumphed over Harold. On Christmas Day 1066, William the Conqueror assumed the crown of England.

Front 140

Richard I

Back 140

Richard I is brother of Henry II and son of Eleanor of Aquitaine. After Henry died Richard, also known as Richard the Lionheart, became king of England.

Front 141

Black Death

Back 141

BY 1348, the Black Death had reached beyond Italy to Spain and France. From there it ravaged the rest of Europe. The sickness was a bubonic plague, a disease spread by fleas and rats. In the 1200s, Mongol armies conquered much of Asia, probably setting off the new epidemic. In the early 1300s, rats scurrying through crowded Chinese cities spread the plague, which killed about 35 million people there. In Europe, the plague brought terror and bewilderment, as people had no way to stop the disease. The European economy plunged to a low ebb. As workers died, production declined, so as the cost of labor soared, inflation broke out too.

Front 142

Ferdinand and Isabella

Back 142

In 1469, Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon. Using their combine forces, the two monarchs made a final push against the Muslim stronghold of Granada. In 1492, the Granada fell and the Reconquista was complete. Isablla was determined to bring religious as well as political unity to Spain. Under Muslim rule, Spain enjoyed a tradition of religious toleration. Isabella ended that policy of toleration. With the support of the Inquisition, a Church court set up to try people accused of heresy, Isabella launched a brutal crusade against Jews and Muslims. The queen achieved religious unity but at a high price. More than 150,000 people fled Spain.

Front 143

Olmec

Back 143

The Olmecs were the Earliest American civilization to emerge along the Mexican Gulf Coast. They lasted from about 1400 B.C. to 500 B.C. Rich tombs and temples suggest a powerful class of priests and aristocrats. They did not build true cities. Rather, they built ceremonial centers made up of pyramid-shaped temples and other temples. The most dramatic remains of the Olmec civilization are the giant carved stone heads found in the ruins of a religious center at La Venta. The Olmecs also invented a calendar and used carved inscriptions as a form of writing. But their most important legacy may have been the tradition of priestly leadership and religious devotion that became a basic part of later Middle America civilizations.

Front 144

Maya

Back 144

Between AD 300 and 900, Mayan city-states flourished from the Yucatan in southern Mexico through much of Central America. Mayan farmers cleared the dense rain forests and then built raised fields that caught and held rain water. They also built channels that could be opened to drain excess water. This complex system produced enough native corn, called maize, and other crops to support rapidly growing cities. Towering pyramid temples dominated the largest Mayan city of Tikal, in present day Guatemala. Temples served for as places to perform sacrafices and burial places for nobles and priests. Tikal also boasted large palaces and huge stone pillars covered with elaborate carvings. Much of the wealth of Tikal and other Mayan cities came from trading. Each Mayan city had its own ruling chief that was surrounded by nobles and officials. Priests held great power because only they could conduct the elaborate ceremonies needed to ensure good harvests and success in war. Most Mayas were farmers, though. They developed a hieroglyphic writing system. They also developed an accurate 365-day solar calendar. Mayan priests also invented a numbering system and understood the concept of zero. About 900 AD, the Mayas abandoned their cities, but no one knows exactly why.

Front 145

Aztec

Back 145

In the late 1200s, the ancestors of the Aztecs migrated into the Valley of Mexico from the north. Once settled, the Aztecs shifted from hunting to farming. Slowly, they built the city of Tenochtitlan. They built chinampas, artificial islands made of earth piled on reed mats that were anchored to the shallow lake bed. They gradually filled in parts of the lake and created canals for transportation. By 1500, the Aztec empire numbered an estimated 30 million people. A tribute, or payment from conquered peoples, helped the Aztecs turn their capital into a magnificent city. The Aztecs had a single ruler. Below him, nobles served as officials, judges, and governors of conquered provinces. Next, came warriors, who could rise to noble status by killing or capturing enemy soldiers. At the bottom of society were the slaves. The chief Aztec god was Huitzilopochtli, the sun god. The Aztecs also practiced sacrifices to please their gods.

Front 146

Inca

Back 146

Pachacuti founded the Incan empire and in 1438, he proclaimed himself Sapa Inca and set out on a policy for conquest. The Sapa Inca exercised absolute power. Claiming he was divine, he was also the chief religious leader with gold being his symbol. Nobles ruled the provinces. Below them, officials carried out the day-to-day business of collecting taxes and enforcing laws. Specially trained officials kept records on a quipu. The Incas imposed their own language, Quechua, and religion on the people. They also created one of the great road systems of history. All roads led through Cuzco. The population was made up of representatives of all the peoples of the empire. In the heart of the city stood the great Temple of the Sun, its interior walls lined with gold.

Front 147

Nazca

Back 147

In southern Peru, the Nazca people etched glyphs in the desert. A glyph is a pictograph or other symbol carved into the surface. Nazca glyphs include straight lines that run for miles, as well as giant figures of birds, whales, and other creatures.

Front 148

Moche

Back 148

Between about AD 100 and 700, the Moche people forged an empire along the arid north coast of Peru. They were skilled farmers, developing methods of terracing, irrigation, and fertilization of the soil. The people perfected skills in textile production, gold work, and woodcarving.

Front 149

Trephination

Back 149

Trephination is an ancient ritual of drilling a hole into one’s skull.

Front 150

Quipu

Back 150

A quipu is a collection of knotted, colored strings. Modern scholars think that quipus noted dates and events as well as statistics on population and crops.

Front 151

Yucatan

Back 151

The Yucatan Peninsula is located in present day Mexico and where the Mayan civilization flourished.

Front 152

Tikal

Back 152

Tikal is the largest Mayan city in present day Guatemala.

Front 153

Teotihuacan

Back 153

The city of Teotihuacan was well planned, with wide roads, massive temples, and large apartment buildings. Along the main avenue, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon rose majestically toward the sky. The citizens worshiped a powerful nature goddess and rain god. But, the city eventually fell to invaders.

Front 154

Tenochtitlan

Back 154

The Aztecs slowly built the city of Tenochtitlan, on the site of present-day Mexico.

Front 155

Atahualpa

Back 155

Around 1532, the Incan ruler Atahualpa won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war. But then Francisco Pizarro captured Atahualpa after slaughtering thousands of his followers.

Front 156

Moctezuma

Back 156

Messangers brought word about the newcomers to the Aztec emperor Moctezuma. He wondered if the leader of the pale-skinned, bearded strangers might be Quetzalcoatl, the god-king who had long vowed to return from the east. He urged the strangers to not to continue to Tenochtitlan. But after Cortes got to the city, he welcomed Cortes. However, wars broke out and Moctezuma was killed in the fighting.

Front 157

Cortes

Back 157

Among the earliest conquistadors was Hernan Cortes who landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 with about 600 men, 16 horses, and a few cannons. As he headed inland toward Tenochtitlan, he was helped by Malinche, a young Indian woman who served as his translator and adviser. Malinche helped Cortes arrange alliances with groups of people unhappy with the Aztec overlords. He ended up killing Moctezuma. In 1521, Cortes and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlan.

Front 158

Pizarro

Back 158

Francisco Pizarro was inspired by Cortes’s success. He arrived in Peru in 1532, just after the Incan ruler Atahualpa won the throne. Helped by Indian allies, Pizarro captured Atahualpa after slaughtering thousands of his followers.

Front 159

Cuzco

Back 159

All of the roads built by the Incas led through Cuzco. The population was made up of representatives of all the peoples of the empire, each living in a particular part of the city. In the heart of the city stood the great Temple of the Sun, its interior walls lined with gold.

Front 160

Potlatch

Back 160

A potlatch is a ceremonial gift giving by wealthy Native Americans of the Northwest Coast.

Front 161

Kiva

Back 161

A kiva is a large underground chamber used by the Anasazi for religious ceremonies.

Front 162

Miaze

Back 162

Maize is native corn of the ancient American civilizations.

Front 163

Confederation

Back 163

Confederation is also known as unification.

Front 164

Causes for the Renaissance

Back 164

The Renaissance was a time of creativity and change in many areas – political, social, economic, and cultural. It was spurred by a reawakened interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome, creative Renaissance minds set out to transform their own age. In reality, Renaissance Europe did not break completely with its medieval past. Yet the Renaissance did produce new attitudes toward culture and learning.

Front 165

Medici

Back 165

In the 1400s, the Medici family of Florence organized a successful baking business. Before long, the family expanded into wool manufacturing, mining, and other ventures. The Medicis ranked among the richest merchants and bankers in Europe. Cosimo de’ Medici gained control of the Florentine government in 1434. Cosimo’s grandson Lorenzo, known as “the Magnificent,” represented the Renaissance ideal. In the late 1400s, he held Florence together during difficult times. He was also a generous patron of the arts.

Front 166

Martin Luther

Back 166

In 1517, protests against Church abuses erupted into a full-scale revolt. The man who triggered the revolt was a German monk and professor of theology named Martin Luther. In 1517, a priest named Johann Tetzel was selling indulgences saying that the purchasers would go to heaven. To Luther, Tetzel’s actions were the final outrage. He drew up the 95 theses, or arguments, against indulgences. He argued that indulgences had no basis in the bible. The Church called on Luther to recant, or give up his views, and Luther refused. In 1521, the pope excommunicated Luther. Later that year, the new Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, summoned Luther to the diet, or assembly of German princes, at Worms. Charles ordered him to recant, and Luther once again refused. Charles declared Luther an outlaw, making it a crime for anyone in the empire to give him food or shelter. Luther remained in hiding for nearly a year.

Front 167

John Calvin

Back 167

Two other reformers, Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin, presented further challenges to the Catholic Church. John Calvin had a logical, razor-sharp mind. His ideas had a profound effect on the direction of the Reformation. Calvin was born in France and trained as a priest and lawyer. In 1536, Calvin published the Institutes of the Christian Religion. He regarded the Bible as the only source of religious truth. He preached predestination, the idea that God had long ago determined who would gain salvation. He also set up a theocracy, or government run by church leaders.

Front 168

Zwingli

Back 168

Ulrich Zwingli was a reformer that presented further challenges to the Catholic Church. He was a priest and an admirer of Erasmus and lived in the Swiss city of Zurich. Like Luther, he rejected elaborate church rituals and stressed the importance of the Bible.

Front 169

Artists of the Renaissance

Back 169

Raphael – Raphael was a few years younger than Leonardo and Michelangelo and studied the works of those great masters. His paintings blend Christian and classical styles. He is probably best known for his tender portrayals of the Madonna, the mother of Jesus.
Da Vinci – Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452. He made sketches of nature and of models in his studio. He even dissected corpses to learn how bones and muscles work. His most popular painting is the Mona Lisa, a portrait of a woman whose mysterious smile has baffled viewers for centuries. The Last Supper, showing Christ and his apostles on the night before crucifixion, is both a moving religious painting and a masterpiece of perspective. He thought of himself as an artist, but his talents and accomplishments ranged over many areas. His interest extended to botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, and engineering.
Michelangelo – Michelangelo was a many-sided genius as well. As a young man, he shaped marble into masterpieces like the Pieta, which captures the sorrow of Mary as she cradles the dead Jesus on her knees. His statue of David recalls the harmony and grace of ancient Greek tradition. One of his greatest projects was painting a hug mural to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. It was an enormous task, depicting the biblical history of the world, from the Creation of the Flood. For four years, the artist lay on his back on a wooden platform suspended just a few inches below the chapel ceiling. He was also a talented architect. His most famous design was for the dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome.
Durer – Albrecht Durer traveled to Italy in 1494 to study the techniques of the Italian masters. Returning home, he employed these methods in paintings and, especially, in engravings. Many of Durer’s engravings portray the religious upheaval of his age. Through is art as a well as through essays, Durer helped spread Italian Renaissance ideas in his homeland. Because of his wide-ranging interests, which extended far beyond art, he is sometimes called the “German Leonardo.”

Front 170

Humanism

Back 170

At the heart of the Italian Renaissance was an intellectual movement known as humanism. Based on the study of classical culture, humanism focused on worldly subjects rather than on religious issues that had occupied medieval thinkers. Most humanist were pious Christians who hoped to use the wisdom of the ancients to increase their understanding of their own times. They returned to the humanities, the subjects taught in ancient Greek and Roman schools. The main areas of study were grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and history. They didn’t accept the classical texts without question so they studied the ancient authorities in light of their own reason.

Front 171

King Henry VIII

Back 171

The break with the Catholic Church was not the work of religious leaders but of King Henry VIII. For political reasons, Henry wanted to end papal control over the English church. At first, Henry VIII stood firmly against the Protestant revolt. The pope even awarded him the title “Defender of Faith” for a pamphlet he wrote denouncing Luther. In 1527, an issue arose that set Henry at odds with the Church. After 18 years of marriage, Henry and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one surviving child, Mary Tudor. Henry felt that England’s stability depended on his having a male heir. He wanted to marry Anne Boleyn, hoping that she would bear him a son. Because Catholic law doesn’t permit divorce, he asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the current pope refused. Henry was furious so he decided to take over the English church. Acting through Parliament, he had a series of laws passed. They took the English church from the pope’s control and placed it under Henry’s rule. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy made Henry “the only supreme head on Earth of the Church of England.” Henry then appointed Thomas Cranmer archbishop and he annulled the king’s marriage. Henry then wed Anne Boleyn, who bore him a second daughter, Elizabeth. In the years ahead, Henry married four more times but had only one son, Edward. Between 1536 and 1540, royal officials investigated English convents and monasteries, claiming they were centers of immortality, Henry ordered them closed. Henry shrewdly granted some of these lands to nobles and other high-ranking officials. He thus secured their support for the Anglican Church, as the new Church of England was called. Henry died in 1547.

Front 172

Queen Mary

Back 172

When Edward died in his teens, his half-sister, Mary Tudor, became queen. She was determined to return England to the Catholic faith. Under Queen Mary, hundreds of English protestants were burned at the stake.

Front 173

Queen Elizabeth

Back 173

On Mary’s death in 1558, the throne was passed to Elizabeth. As queen, Elizabeth had to determine the future of the Church of England. Moving cautiously at first, she slowly enforced a series of reforms that were later called the Elizabethan settlement. The queen’s policies were a compromise between Protestant and Catholic practices. The Church of England kept the hierarchy of bishops and archbishops, but the queen reaffirmed that the monarch was the head of the Anglican Church. During her long reign, Elizabeth used all her skills to restore unity to England. While keeping many Catholic traditions, she made England a firmly Protestant nation.

Front 174

Lutheranism

Back 174

At the heart of Luther’s teachings were several beliefs. First, he rejected the Church doctrine that good deeds were necessary for salvation. Second, Luther upheld the Bible as the sole source of religious truth. Third, He rejected the idea that priests and the Church hierarchy had special powers. All Christians, he said, had equal access to God through faith and the Bible. Luther wanted to change other church practices. He rejected five of the seven sacraments because the Bible did not mention them. He banned indulgences, confession, pilgrimages, and prayers to saints. He also simplified the elaborate ritual of mass and instead emphasized the sermon. By 1530, the Lutherans were using a new name, Protestant, for those who “protested” papal authority.

Front 175

Calvinism

Back 175

Calvin preached predestination, the idea that God had long ago determined who would gain salvation. To Calvinists, the world was divided into two kinds of people – saints and sinners. Calvinists tried to live like saints, believing that only those who were saved could live truly Christian lives. In 1541, Protestants in the city-state of Geneva in Switzerland asked Calvin to lead their community. He set up a theocracy, or government run by church leaders. Calvinists stressed hard work, discipline, thrift, honesty, and morality. Calvin closed theaters and frowned on elaborate dress. To many Protestants, this emphasis on strict morality made Calvinist Geneva seem a model community. By the late 1500s, Calvinism had taken root in Germany, France, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland.

Front 176

Anabaptists

Back 176

Anabaptists was a sect that argued that infants were too young to understand what it means to accept Christian faith. Only adults, they felt, should receive the sacrament of baptism. A few Anabaptists sects sought radical social change as well. Some wanted to abolish private property, while others sought to speed up the coming of God’s Day of Judgment by violent means. Most Anabaptists were peaceful though and called for religious toleration and separation of church and state.

Front 177

Major Scientists (AKA Descartes and Sir Francis Bacon)

Back 177

Two huge scientists in this revolution of the scientific method were the Englishman Francis Bacon and Frenchman Rene Descartes. Both Bacon and Descartes rejected Aristotle’s scientific assumptions. They also challenged the scholarly traditions of the medieval universities that sought to make the physical world fit in with the teachings of the Church. Bacon and Descartes differed in their methods, however. Bacon stressed experimentation and observation. He wanted to make life better for people by leading to practical technologies. Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding.

Front 178

Indulgences

Back 178

According to Church teaching and indulgence was a lessening of the time a soul would have to spend in purgatory.

Front 179

Ignatius of Loyola

Back 179

In 1540, the pope recognized a new religious order, the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Founded by Ignatius of Loyola, the Jesuit order was determined to combat heresy and spread the Catholic faith. Ignatius was a Spanish knight and his leg was shattered in battle. So he found comfort reading about saints who had overcome mental and physical torture. Vowing to become a “soldier of God,” he drew up a strict program for the Jesuits. It included spiritual and moral discipline, rigorous religious training, and absolute obedience to the Church.

Front 180

Teresa of Avila

Back 180

As the Catholic Reformation spread, many Catholics experienced renewed feelings of intense faith. Teresa of Avila symbolized this renewal. Born into a wealthy Spanish family, she entered a convent in her youth. She set up her own order of nuns because she didn’t find her convent routine strict enough. Impressed by her spiritual life, her superiors in the Church asked Teresa to reorganize and reform convents and monasteries throughout Spain. Teresa was widely honored for her work, and after her death the Church canonized her.

Front 181

Society of Jesus

Back 181

In 1540, the pope recognized a new religious order, the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits which was founded by Ignatius of Loyola. Ignatius eventually drew up a strict program for the Jesuits. It included spiritual and moral discipline, rigorous religious training, and absolute obedience to the Church. Led by Ignatius, the Jesuits embarked on a crusade to defend and spread the Catholic faith throughout the world. Jesuits also became advisers to Catholic rulers, helping them combat heresy in their lands. They set up schools that taught humanist and Catholic beliefs and enforced discipline and obedience. Jesuit missionaries spread their Catholic faith to distant lands, including Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Front 182

Brunellesci

Back 182

For the cathedral in Florence, Filippo Brunellesci created a majestic dome, which he modeled on the dome of the Pantheon in Rome.

Front 183

Baldassare Castiglione

Back 183

Baldassare is the author of the most widely read handbooks named The Book of the Courtier. Castiglione’s ideal courtier was a well-educated, well-mannered aristocrat who mastered many fields, from poetry to music to sports. His ideal differed for men and women. The ideal man is athletic but not overactive. He is good at games, but not a gambler. He plays a musical instrument and knows literature and history but is not arrogant. The ideal woman offers a balance to men. She is graceful and kind, lively but reserved. She is beautiful, “for outer beauty,” wrote Castiglione, “is the true sign of inner goodness.”

Front 184

Machiavelli

Back 184

Niccolo Machiavelli wrote a different kind of handbook. He served Florence as a diplomat and had observed kings and princes in foreign courts. He wrote the handbook The Prince. He urged rulers to use whatever methods were necessary to achieve their goals. He saw himself as an enemy of oppression and corruption.

Front 185

Cervantes

Back 185

The best known work of the Renaissance in Spain is Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes. It’s an entertaining tale that mocks romantic notions of medieval chivalry. The novel follows the adventures of Don Quixote, a foolish but idealistic knight, and Sancho Panza, his faithful servant.

Front 186

“Utopia”

Back 186

Utopia was written by Thomas More. In Utopia, More describes an ideal society in which men and women live in peace and harmony.

Front 187

“The Prince”

Back 187

The Prince was written by Niccolo Machiavelli and was published in 1513. In the Prince, Machiavelli combined his personal experience of politics with his knowledge of the past to offer a guide to rulers on how to gain and maintain power.

Front 188

“The Book of Courtier”

Back 188

The most widely read handbook was The Book of the Courtier. Its author, Baldassare Castiglione, describes the manners, skills, learning, and virtues that a member of the court should have.

Front 189

“In Praise of Folly”

Back 189

In the Praise of Folly, the author, Erasmus, uses humor to expose the ignorant and immoral behavior of many people of his day, including the clergy.

Front 190

Guttenberg

Back 190

In 1456, Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, printed the first complete edition of the Bible using the first printing press and printing inks in the West.

Front 191

Baroque

Back 191

Baroque is an ornate style of art and architecture popular in the 1600s and 1700s.

Front 192

Gothic

Back 192

Gothic is an architectural style of the late Middle Ages that was seen as cluttered and disorderly during the Renaissance.

Front 193

Fresco

Back 193

A fresco is a colorful painting completed on wet plaster.

Front 194

Peace of Augsburg

Back 194

During the 1530s and 1540s, Holy Roman emperor Charles V tried to force Lutheran princes back into the Catholic Church, but with little success. Finally, after a number of brief wars, Charles and the princes reached a settlement. The Peace of Augsburg, signed in 1555, allowed each prince to decide which religion would be followed in his lands

Front 195

Council of Trent

Back 195

To establish the direction that reform should take, the pope called the Council of Trent in 1545. It met off and on for almost 20 years. The council reaffirmed traditional Catholic views. The council also took steps to end abuses in the Church.

Front 196

Battle of Vienna

Back 196

-

Front 197

Merovic

Back 197

-

Front 198

Paracas

Back 198

-

Front 199

Terraces

Back 199

-

Front 200

Disposable Income

Back 200

-

Front 201

Reformation and Counter Reformation

Back 201

-

Front 202

Albizzi

Back 202

-

Front 203

Wittenberg

Back 203

-

Front 204

“The Birth of Venus”

Back 204

-

Front 205

“La Primavera”

Back 205

-

Front 206

Codices

Back 206

-