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87 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Order
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Galliformes
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Family
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Odontophoridae
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Genus
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Colinus
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New World Quail
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31 species and 128-45 subspecies
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Four species of bobwhites
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-Black-throated bobwhite
-Spot-bellied bobwhite -Crested bobwhite -Northern bobwhite |
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Evolution and Fossil History
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-Quail like bird appeared in fossil record about 40 mbp.
-Resembled chachalacas -Long tails, most time in trees -Colinus appeared between 7 and 12 mbp. -members south because crested bobwhites -Northward evolved into northern bobwhites -In contrast, blue quail appeared about 2.8 mbp and Gambel’s and California quail about 190,000 ybp. |
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4 types of quail found in Texas
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1. Northern Bobwhite
2. Scaled quail 3. Gambel’s Quail 4. Montezuma Quail |
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Scientific name: Northern Bobwhite
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Colinus Virginamus
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Scientific name: Scaled quail
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Callipepla squamata
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Reasons for quail decline
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1.Suburban expansion
2. 3.Fire ants 4.Increase in meso (medium sized) carnivores |
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Texas is the major place for Northern bobwhites
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-cannot go west cause of low precipitation, cannot go north because of temp.
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-Bobwhite Vocalizations
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-Reproduction call
-Group movement call -Enemy Avoidance call |
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Reproduction call
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ah-bob-white
-used for males calling females -Males start giving this call around early March -The peak of calling is around May and June |
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Group movement call
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-Also called separation call
-Used to reunite a scattered covey -Used in winter, primarily when coveyed up |
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Enemy Avoidance call
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-Essentially an alarm call
-Give this call when a predator approaches |
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Covey break up of Bobwhites
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-coveyed up between February and March
-pairs become common during April |
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Pair formation of Bobwhites
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-Males do a little bowing
-Females will quiver wings and represent they are ready to breed |
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Mating systems (breeding systems)
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-Bobwhites were originally thought to be monogamous
-radio telemetry have led to show us that this is not true -Actually employ polygamous mating systems |
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2 types of polygamy bobwhites use
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-Rapid Multiclutch
-Ambisexual Polygamy |
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Ambisexual Polygamy
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male and female will have multiple partners
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Rapid mulitclutch
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Male and female are simultaneously incubating 2 clutches
-Female will have one clutch with a male and the male will stay and incubate that clutch, the female will leave and have another clutch with either that same male or another male and is incubated by the female |
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Nest Construction for Bobwhites
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-Nesting season can potentially last from mid April to Late October
-Peak nesting months are June to August -Length of nesting season can be strongly influenced by weather -can be shortened by drought -if its cool, season can be extended |
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Nest Construction for Bobwhites 2
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-bobwhites nest on the ground
-Generally construct nests in residual cover of bunchgrass -Bluestem -Sometimes use prickly pair cactus -Both males and females take place in nest construction -Essentially the bobwhite nest consists of a nest bowl, it is about 5 inches wide and about 2 inches deep. Lined with dead grass, leaves, small twigs |
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Nest Construction for Bobwhites 3
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-Upon completion of nest, female will start laying eggs within 1-7 days. 1 egg per day. Average clutch size of 12-15 eggs on first nest. Incubation is about 23 days
-She will incubate the eggs at one time so they can hatch at the same time. They will all hatch within 2 hours of each other -If she is already incubating the eggs and is disturbed she will leave and come back. If she has been incubating for a while, she will not leave the nest at all. If she is in process of laying eggs, she will most likely abandon that nest and establish a renest. |
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Nest Construction for Bobwhites 4
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-Individual nests have a very low probability of being successful. 34% success rate
-The renest will only lay about 8 eggs -27-55 days total -Capable of doing this multiple times in a season |
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Brooding for Bobwhties
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-they develop an egg tooth, which is used for cracking their way out of the shell
-They squeeze themselves out of the egg and are brooded by the hen and are out of the nest within 1 day -Growth and development is rapid -They are brooded 24 hours a day, for about the first week of their life |
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Brooding for Bobwhites 2
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-The primary feathers come in within 3 or 4 days
-They are capable of flight whithin 14 days -Start putting on juvenile ploomage about week 3 -By about week 5 only traces of birth feathers remain -By about 5 weeks they are capable of maintaining a heavy rainstorm -they can go the entire night without brooding |
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Brooding for Bobwhites 3
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-The juvenile plumage is considered complete by 8 weeks
-You can tell males from females by 8 to 10 weeks -Bobwhites are considered mature based on plumage characteristics and size by 15 weeks of age. |
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Nesting habitat for Bobwhites
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-bunchgrasses
-bluestems are preferred -three-awns, Balsanscales, Paspalums, Panicus, lovegrass -They use whatever is there for them to use. Depends on where u are in the country -In one study there were 31% used prickly pair cactus, when there were over 1,000 possible grass sites |
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Brooding (brood rearing) habitat for Bobwhites
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-They need shade, open herbaceous cover, and green growing vegetation
-need shade because they will over heat and die. Average temp. is about 105 -also called loafing habitat -the loafing cover will consist of woody vegetation and woody shrubs for protection -Tend to select areas where there is a percentage of shrub cover |
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Covey habitat for Bobwhites
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-they use loafing cover
-Use bare ground, woody vegetation |
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Diet for Bobwhites
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-Quail prodimently eat seeds when they are adults
-Will consume some green vegetation, insects -Spring- primarily green forbs and insects -eat insects for high protein to make eggs -For about first 6 weeks of chicks lives, they are exclusively eating insects |
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Demography
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-Bobwhites have a short lifespan
-The average lifespan for northern bobwhites is 6 months -80% annual mortality -Everything about bobwhites is about evolving under predation pressure -After about 2 or 3 weeks, the probability the quail will survive is the same as an adult -In captive studies, it was estimated under absolutely perfect conditions the annual survival rate was 56% |
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What variable besides senescence (old age) limit bobwhite survival in Texas?
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1. Catastrophic weather events.
2. Parasites 3. Nutrition 4. Nest predation |
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Nutrition
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-No studies indicate lack of food limits survival of adult birds
-The situation with chicks is less clear |
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Nest predation
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-non human predation is the largest cause of nest loss
-abandonment, loss due to weather, etc. -the relative impact of certain predators varies by region -Silvy (2000) found no correlation between decline of fur market and bobwhite abundance |
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Three points concerning nest predation and long term bobwhite abundance:
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1. Although many animals depredate bobwhite nests given the species pepencity to renest, that is what allows them to precist despite substantial nest loss
2. No evidence that fir markets are responsible for declining bobwhite abundance 3. Even if it were determined that nest predation now is a much greater problem that previously thought, this still would not imply that nest predation is the ultimate cause of declining bobwhite numbers |
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Bobwhite predation
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-the majority of bobwhites die from predation
-it is unknown for chicks -bobwhites tend to forage less in areas with high number of fire ants -avian predators -accipetors |
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Population dynamic
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-How these populations change overtime
-Reproductive potential is how this species persists -enormous reproductive potential -given the right env. Conditions, all females will attempt to nest -clutch size is large and hatch ability is high -there are very few if any infertile eggs |
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Variation on Production
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-boom/bust phenomenon
-quail show variations in abundance every year -weather is the ultimate driver behind the boom bust phenomenon, with precipitation being the dominant factor |
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Scaled Quail
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-aka blue quail
-prefer to run rather than fly -not as well studied as Bobwhites -have a fairly big distribution |
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2 subspecies of blue quail
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1. Arizona scale quail
-find in open areas 2. Chestnut belly -tend to be slightly smaller -use more of a thorn, scrub vegetation (river drainages) |
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Scaled Quail 2
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-Unlike bobwhites their western range does not stop because of rainfall
-declining through much of their range -it is hard to pinpoint one reason -one hypothesis is the conversion of rangeland to crop land and overgrazing |
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Habitat for Scaled Quail
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o Breeding and non breeding habitat are mostly the same
o Roosting (on the ground) cover consists of low growing shrubs with a canopy of about 35% canopy cover mixed with grass 45% cover. o Approximately ¾ acre of roosting habitat for every 50 acres needed. |
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Loafing cover for Scale Quail
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o Some taller vegetation. More dense above and open underneath. Canopied.
- Lotebush - Sand plums -Cat claw memosa - Cholla o Lots of human structures used. -Cattle guards -Old farm machinery -Etc o 15ft diameter and 3-6ft tall needed for good loafing cover |
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Escape cover for Scaled Quail
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o Have tendency to run.
o Select mesquite or some non shrub cover (grass) o Some use human structures |
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Diet for Scaled Quail
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o Primarily eat seeds like bobwhite
o Majority of diet depends on season o Consume four times more forbes than bobwhites o Eat more insects than bobwhite adults o Same species are selected as bobwhites, but they eat them in different proportions. o Chicks eat more insects and then turn to grains and seeds as they mature about 13 weeks |
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Survival for Scaled Quail
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o Before telemetry most population survival research was done using banding and band returns from harvesting.
o Chick survival is low. Unknown to what extent. o In general it’s highly variable and there’s a lot we don’t know. o Somewhat general trend in that a wet year generally correlates to better survivability, especially the further west you get. |
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Mortality for Scaled Quail
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o Short lived bird.
o Die of predation, disease, etc. o Most don’t die of old age o Preyed on by same meso carnivores that prey on bobwhite o Predation is main cause of mortality on scaled quail o Very little specific data on mortality o Human causes of mortality -Drowning in cattle troughs. -Not a real influence on population |
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Annual cycle and life history for Scaled Quail
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-similar vocalizations as bobwhites but it sounds different
-mating call: males give a squawking sound -care of young call: same as bobwhites but different sound -Gathering call: Pe-cos sound -most well known call for scale quail -Individual fright cry: tsing sound -conservation notes -pairs talk to one another with clucking sounds |
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Divide annual cycle into 2 periods for Scaled Quail
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-Reproductive Period: April to September
-Cuvy period: October to March |
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Annual cycle and life history for scaled quail 2
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-Pair bonding probably begins before cuvy breakup is complete
-breading behavior Males will fluff up feathers -durring courtship male will gather up food for female |
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Nest construction for Scaled Quail
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-Nesting season will fall April-September
-Hatching season early May to Late August -have been known to delay nesting until after heavy rain -are ground nesting birds -similar to shape and size as bobwhites -use yuka, prickly pair, havolena bush, tobosa grass (98% in Eddies study) |
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Nesting success for Scaled Quail
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-eggs to tend to be 1.2 -1.3 inches
-average egg mass is 11 grams -larger than Northern Bobwhite eggs -are more drought tolerant than bobwhites -seem to be more negatively impacted by rainfall that bobwhites -average of 13 or 14 eggs per nest |
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Nesting success for Scaled Quail 2
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-lay an egg a day, each an hour later in the day
-If the time for laying an egg approaches late afternoon, they will skip that day -Incubation 22-23 days -females use brood patch to regulate temperature of nest -males have been seen next to nest while female is brooding -on rare occasions, males have been seen sharing incubation with female -Hatching season May to August |
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Nesting success for Scaled Quail 3
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-Pleasant (2003) estimated hatch ability at 95%
-Nest success is low -high rates of abandonment due to human disturbance -females will renest -fly well by 4 weeks of age -adult weight 22-28 weeks |
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Nesting success for scaled quail 4
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-males continue to be slightly larger than males
-look like adults by about week 12 -if it is really hot and dry you will see cuvy formation in late August -about 15 birds per cuvy |
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History of interest in role of disease in wildlife conservation
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-Leopold (1933) maintained that density fluctuations such as cycles and irruptions are almost certainly due to fluctuations in the prevalence of virulence of, or resistance to infectious disease.
-Thus, he placed host-parasite interactions on par with other important interspecific interactions such as predator-prey dynamics -1950’s viewed infections agents of free-roaming wildlife as ecologically unimportant |
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History of interest in role of disease in wildlife conservation 2
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-Herman (1969) “it is imperative that we recognize the dependency of the occurrence of disease in wildlife on habitat conditions.
-Few studies had been conducted in such a manner that the population level effects of infectious agents could be documented, even if they occurred -These criticisms still hold |
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Parasites and Texas Quail
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-Research addressing parasites of Texas quails mirrored that occurring elsewhere in North America
-Several comprehensive studies in the 40’s and 50’s addressed micro and macro parasites of bobwhites -Less effort has been expended on the other quail -Throughout the remainder of the bobwhites range, biologists from the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study unit have provided parasites lists and reviewed what was known about the infectious agents of bobwhites in the southeastern US. |
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Host-Parasite Ecology
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-Anderson and May (1978) and May and Anderson (1978) provided theoretical framework for evaluating host-parasite interactions ecologically
-They demonstrated how under certain conditions, parasites not only cause disease in individual animals but also regulate host populations. -Ecologically, parasites are organisms that meet the following three conditions; -utilizing their host as habitat -Depending nutritionally on the host -Causing some sort of harm to the host during their life cycle |
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Parasites can be distinguished by size
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1. Microparasites (or pathogens)
2. Macroparasites |
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Microparasites
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include viruses, bacteria and protozoans, are small in size
-Have a short generation time -They develop and multiply rapidly in the host and are thus most typically associated with disease -Elicit long-lasting immunity to re-infection. Infection in short relative to the expected life span of the host |
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Macroparasites
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( parasitic anthropods and helminthes) -are relatively large and include flatworms, roundworms, flukes, lice, fleas, ticks, certain fungi, etc.
-Longer generation time -Direct multiplication in or on the host is absent or occurs at a low rate |
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Hosts provide habitat for parasites
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-Host provide a large range of different habitats for parasites, which usually exploit specific parts of a host’s body, such as in/on the skin, heart, liver, brain, digestive tract, eyes, lungs, etc.
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Parasites can be categorized based on where they live on the host
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1. Endoparasites
2. Ectoparasites |
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Endoparasites
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live whiting the bodies of their hosts (under skin or in in heart, liver, brain, etc). Examples: tapeworms, ringworm
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Ectoparasites
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live on, but not within, bodies of hosts, such as attached to skin
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-Parasites can complete their life cycle either
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-directly be contact between hosts, inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration; or
-Indirectly via biting vectors, penetration by free living larvae produced in an intermediate host, or ingestion by the host of an intermediate host |
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Population Dynamics
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-One of the primary approaches to controlling infectious diseases in wildlife is to interrupt parasitic life cycles
-Understanding how these agents are transmitted is important to wildlife managers. -Parasites potentially can influence host population dynamics by; -regulating host numbers -markedly reducing host abundance during epizootics characterized by high host mortality -Or extirpating small isolated populations |
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Macroparasites
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-can be found in and on all species of Texas quail
-Can be seen with the naked eye (flies, ticks, intestinal, worms) -Parasitic Anthropods -Chewing lice (mallopaga) of at least five species commonly were observed on bobwhites collected in Texas, and prevalence sometimes exceeds 80%. -also found in scale quail and in Gamble’s and Montezuma quail on other states |
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Parasitic Anthropods
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-Hipoboscid flies (louse flies) and fleas were reported for bobwhites
-Primarily significance of Hippoboscid flies is that they serve as vectors for avian malarial organisms -Mites are known to occur and it is reasonable to assume that mites of various species occur in some level in most quail populations |
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Enteric Nematodes
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-The roundworms typically found in the intestinal tracts of northern bobwhites in Texas depend upon where the birds were collected
-subular brumpti was the most common in the Rolling Planes but not found elsewhere -Gulf prairies and marshes typically have Trichostrongylus cramea present which is more typically of the southeastern US -Most maintain that intestinal nemarodes and cecal worms are not particularly pathogenic. -Some have direct life cycles and those that have indirect life cycle usually employ an intermediate host such as grasshoppers or genera of isopods -Some species of cecal worm can transmit the protozoan that is responsible for histomoniasis -The pathogenic of these organisms for bobwhites is unclear -The pop. Level significance if any is unknown |
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Other Nematodes
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-Eyeworms identified under the nictitating membranes of ~50% of bobwhites in Cottle Country
-speculation that vision could be impaired by most maintain that these parasites cause mild if any clinical signs |
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Cestodes
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-Commonly encountered during surveys for parasitic helminthes of northern bobwhites in Texas, but prevalence and intensities were low
-Tapeworms of the genus Raillietina were recovered from bobwhites in all physiographic regions where helminth surveys were completed -Some species were cosmopolitan parasites of domestic poultry; some may be specific to bobwhites |
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Cestodes 2
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-Avian tapeworms use arthropod or isopod intermediate hosts, prevalence and intensity should vary by season
-Because of diet requirements, cestode intensity and prevalence should be higher in young birds compared to adults -Documented in scale quail in Texas -Not documented in Gambel’s |
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Acanthocephalans
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-Has been documented in bobwhites, but no records of prevalence of scaled, Gambel’s or Montezuma quail.
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Trematodes
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-Use gastropods or bivalves as intermediate hosts
-Rare in Texas quail -Documented in pen-reared scaled quail where climatic conditions ensured availability of freshwater snails |
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Microparasites
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-Limited research has addressed microparasites of Texas quail
-Unfortunate because some pathogenic protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and fungi have the potential to significantly influence quail population dynamics -Initial surveys for scaled, Gambels, Montezuma quail are needed |
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Hematozoa
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-No hematozoa (blood parasites) documented for quail in Texas
-Suitable vectors for hematozoa are known to occur in bobwhites -Plasmodium ssp. And Haemoproteus ssp., etiologic agents of avian malaria, have long been recognize in quail |
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Other Protozoa
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-Intestinal coccidian have been observed in bobwhites in the post oak savannah region of Texas. Overall rate in quail
-Cryptosporidium sp. Is an important disease in young pen-reared quail -No records in free-roaming quail |
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Other Protozoa 2
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-Histomaniasis has long concerned quail managers
-Legions consistent with this parasite found in Florida and Georgia, but parasite could not be isolated -Serious threat in pen-reared populations -Trichiminas sp. Has been isolated from the ceca of pen-reared and free-roaming bobwhites in southeastern US -This is most important disease in mourning doves, but siginificance to free-roaming bobwhites is unknown |
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Bacteria and similar organisms
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-Found individuals seropositive for P. multocida, the causative agent of avian cholera
-Avian cholera can cause 99% mortality in captive bobwhite within a 6-day period -Most work citing bacterial disease addresses pen-reared birds -Ulcerative enteritis is probably the most important disease of captive bobwhites |
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Fungi
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-Fungal diseases are rarely reported for quail in Texas, but it is assumed that they occur with similar rates throughout their range
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Mycrotoxins
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-Toxic metabolites produced by various species of fungi have peaked interest of biologists.
-Contaminated feed. Most efforts have focused on aflatoxins -Much better data is needed |
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Viruses
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-Avian pox lesions have been documented throughout the range of bobwhites in multiple studies
-Lesions on the legs cause few problems, but on the eyes, nares, or in the oral cavity can lead to emancipation and death -Quail bronchitis, important disease of young penreared quail, is caused by an adenovirus, -Antibodies against this disease have been detected, by clinical disease has not been documented in the wild |
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Macroparasites 2
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-Ticks of at least five species commonly were found on bobwhites with prevalence sometimes reaching 100% and infestation intensity varying considerably
-Anecdotal evidence that the prevalence of ticks decreased once red-imported fire ants invaded an area |
