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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Aristotle's Rock Fish
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the idea that the seed of a fish combined with rocks to form fish fossils
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Historicity of life
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Darwin's most revolutionary contribution which began the study of the history of evolution.
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Biology
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The word, meaning study of life, wasn't coined until around 1800 --Karl Friedrich Burdach
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evolution vs. extinction
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People used evolution as a way around extinction, species, like mammoths, just evolved on. Lamarck vs. Cuvier. old vs. new political ideas.
A debate that went on between Lamarck and Cuvier, the biggest debate in the 18th century |
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uniformitarianism
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cycles of change, balance-- notion of world as 'relic' of disappeared history-- founded by James Hutton, who proposed eternal cycle of uplift and erosion-- "natural theology movement"
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Jean-Baptise LaMarck
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irst evolutionary theorist, who proposed theory in order to 'get around specter of extinction'-- politicized debate between seemingly opposing theories.
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Four elements in Transmutation
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1. Superfecundity – high geometrical powers of increase due to birthrates of animals
a. animals leave far more offspring than can possibly survive. b. after only 750 years, a single pair of elephants would give rise to a population of 20 million. 2. Struggle for Existence a. takes place in different forms i. on the level of individual organisms - predation and parasitism ii. species against each other - competing for the same resources iii. species against hostile environment iv. within a single organism, for example, tree branches competing for sunlight. b. “all of nature is at war” 3. Heritable Variation a. nature of organisms becomes plastic b. offspring never exactly resemble parents c. As such, species cannot be considered stable, but rather "protean entities." d. Becomes very noticeable when environmental conditions change 4. Survival of the fittest a. Some random variations will benefit an individual organism more than others. Organisms with beneficial traits that increase their likelihood of reproducing will be more likely to produce offspring with these traits. |
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Natural Theology
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God's hand in creation can be found in nature. Furnished an almost obsessive desire to go out and study nature. (Paley)
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Animal Mimcry
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Animals mimic other animals as a form of protection. Darwin laid basis for animal mimicry.
Animals mimic other animals as a form of protection. Darwin laid basis for animal mimicry (i.e. butterflies with colorful spots) |
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Aristotle’s 4 Causes (aitia):
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1. Material cause (stuff)
2. Formal cause (form) 3. Moving cause (our cause) 4. Final cause (purpose or telos) There are four main causes of nature Each of these "causes" was a different sense of the Greek word aition, which Aristotle thought was ambiguous and needed to be clarified |
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Ovists vs Spermists
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Spermists: male (via sperm) provide form (Aristotle)
Ovists: female (via egg) provide the form (Carolus Linnaeus) |
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Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799)
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claimed that both males and females contributed to heredity -Frog experiment (put trousers on male frogs in order to see if the females could still produce offspring without fertilization) – disproved spontaneous generation – kill microorganisms by boiling
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Scala naturae
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Great Chain of Being - a concept that there is a hierarchical ladder of creation
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“Great Chain of Being”
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scala naturae, ladder of creation
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Drawing of the bat
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A drawing in which Cuvier found common pattern within organisms
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Georges Cuvier
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- catastrophist who says extinction is real, evolution is not
- Founder of comparative anatomy - One of the first scientists to be a self-proclaimed revolutionary |
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James Hutton (1726-1797)
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# Designed and built canals - important to the discovery and observation of the layers of rock
* (side note) It would be iinteresting to see a compelation of discoveries that were found by digging canals and making railroads, because many things about the earth was found out this way. # Founder of uniformitarianism # Distinguished igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock # Recognized fossils as keys for dating rock |
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Thomas Burnet, Sacred Theory of the Earth (1861)
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images from the period showed the expectation that eventually everything would erode to a point where the world would be uniformly smooth and covered in water
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Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
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# Popularized uniformitarianism in England (Bigger deal than Hutton)
# Liked to travel (Believed travel was 1st, 2nd, and 3rd requirement for modern geologist) * Most important book is Principles of Geology (1830-33), which discusses deep time and suppressed catastrophists # Against Cuvier’s catastrophic views, he was also an anti-evolutionist one of the uniformitarianists |
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Naturalism
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natural laws are constant (probably true but non-controversial)
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Actualism
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causes we find today are sufficient to account for past changes; no new causes under the sun (sort of true)
facet of uniformitarianism: causes we find today are sufficient to account for past changes; no new causes under the sun |
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Gradualism
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Process have never acted with different degrees of energy (false) à There are non-gradualistic processes that happen; scablands area of Dry Falls: a huge waterfall melted and fell into the Pacific Ocean; meteorite that killed the dinosaurs (not scientific to think about it at that time); periodic drying out of Mediterranean, Africa ramming against Europe (there is a grand Canyon under the Nile – found by Russian geologists; cut by Nile when Mediterranean dried, Australopithecus might have seen the drying up of Mediterranean)
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Steady State
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(earth has always been the same—there is no direction in history of earth). (mostly false) – There is no destiny and the earth has changed
facet of uniformitarianism: earth has always been the same-- there is no direction in the history of the earth (mostly false). |
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Erasmus Darwin
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grandfather of Darwin, abolitionist, Lamarckian. He was one of the founder members of the Lunar society, a discussion group of somewhat radical natural philosophers, industrialists and other intellectuals.
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Robert Fitzroy
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captain of the beagle, creationist. He was interested in phrenology, i.e. determining people's personalities by reading "bumps" in the skull. Fitzroy did not like the shape of Darwin's nose because it signified a low intellect.
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Movele Cave
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Romania
* Only ecosystem that has all its energy come from rocks * Huge 30-50 feet crystals * Are never found out about because it's about 135 degrees F inside * Illustrates the importance of isolation. |
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Malthus
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a population left unchecked grows exponentially. Resources grow linearly.
-Point of crisis: Population outgrows resources. |
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Mercantilism
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strength of a nation is dependent on its population
* England outlawed abortion in order to promote this idea economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable." Economic assets or capital, are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy; by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of tariffs and subsidies |
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William Paley's Natural Theology:
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teleological: It cannot be just chance that brought all the factors together to allow life on earth.
-Paley's "watch" is an example of this, as he makes the argument that the watch's purpose must have been given to it by someone, i.e. God |
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Sporkes
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macro-mutations that transform the characteristics of a creature in one fell swoop
* ie Ancon Sheep: a sheep with short legs that couldn't jump the fences |
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Pangenesis
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little particles from our body go into our sperm/eggs and allow transfer of heredity
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Transitional gradations
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intermediate steps in evolution. (there are similar eels that do not have the abilty of electric discharge but have highly similar organs)
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William Jennings Bryan
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Bryan ran for president 3 times (lost each time), and Darrow campaigned for him twice.
Bryan was very a popular orator and writer. Prosecuting attorney in Scopes Trial, congressmen, and former Secretary of State |
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Clarence Darrow
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attorney for the defense in Scopes Trial
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Eugenics
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science of breeding a better human
Three kinds of eugenics * Positive (e.g. encouraging healthy marriages between "fit" individuals) * Negative (e.g. sterilization, banning marriages between "unfit" individuals, or outright extermination of those deemed unfit) * Preventative (e.g. protection from mutagens or anything that can harm the "germ plasm", e.g. tobacco, alcohol, asbestos, heavy metals, x-rays) |
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Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940)
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* German physicist, biologist, eugenist known for coining the term racial hygiene-translation for american eugenics
* Not an anti-Semite - Thought that Jews were part of the Aryan race * Pacifist - Nobel prize nominee because said that wars kill off the healthiest and the best so it is bad for our special fitness |
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1933 sterilization law
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# Response to concern that the U.S. would become "racial leaders"
* Mainly due to their treatment of blacks: Black doctors were not allowed to join the AMA until after WWII # They thought this would allow them to become more racially pure than the United States because of the strict marriage laws between races in place in the U.S. (see Carl Clauberg) # Allowed for forcible sterilization of people with certain physical or mental illnesses |
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Carl Clauberg
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* Said that US was making it illegal for interracial marriage (whites and blacks, mostly), and that if Germany didn’t do that, they would fall behind in the racial war
* Developed rapid technique of gaseous sterilization: Flushing super-cool carbon dioxide into the uterus, causing scarring and immediate sterilization o Many hundreds of women died just from being sterilized * Another sterilization technique that was tried involved exposing the reproductive organs to high-powered x-rays. The use of this technique was discontinued because it caused radiation burns. |
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Nuremberg Laws (1935)
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Barred “Germans” from marrying Jews, denied Jews citizenship
Allowed someone of pure "German" blood only to marry someone with less than 1/4 Jewish blood. Because of this, one could say that the Nazi miscegenation laws were more lenient than those in America, since in America, the general rule was that any traceable nonwhite ancestry barred one from marrying a white person. |
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The Pernkopf Atlas (Anatomy)
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most detailed anatomical drawings since Vesalius
* The drawings in the Atlas may be of dissections of people executed by the Nazi regime * Was still used in U.S. in 1980's * What are the moral implications of using sound science developed through unconscionable means? * Raises the question of "good vs. evil" science |
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Reasons Why Cigarettes Took Off
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Flue-curing: allowed people to inhale smoke (lower pH to 6.5 from 8.0) # Matches were invented to allow for easy lightups (friction matches-1827; safety matches-1855) # Mechanization of producing cigarettes helped lower prices; most of it was paper, so it's like printing your own money... cigarette rolling workers could only roll 200 a day, but the mechanization helped produce 100,000 cigarettes per day * Protos-M5: “deadliest machine in the world”, makes 16,000 cigarettes a minute * Many innovative machines helped bring production from 1 cigarette a minute up to 16,400 cigarettes a minute |
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Brand stretching:
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way to keep brand alive even thought advertising is banned (cigarette branded clothing stores - MarlboroClassics, the "Cook Like A Man" Cookbook
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dual rhetoric
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saying one thing, communicating another
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alternative causation theory
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known as longest running misinformation campaign in history (even though promised honest research in "Frank Statement")
Tobacco industry began destraction research by blaming cancer on asbestos, balding, birth month The tobacco industry's attempt to blame cancer on factors other than cigarettes |
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Discovery
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Expand what we know – satisfy thirst for knowledge
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Invention
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Help make life easier – increase production, communication
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Apology
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Defend some status of fluxus quo – scientific racism, Nazi science
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Agnotology
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Create ignorance – via distractions, decoy research, filibuster research keep the question open for further research (tobacco industry, climate change)
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Agnomancy
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Dark arts of creating ignorance
The act of creating ignorance |
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The machine gun
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ideal in defending trenches. (WW1)
* developed by Maxim, a EE advised to invent something more practical for the war |
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The tank
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Counter to barbed wire and machine gun
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Airpower
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The big innovation -- On January 15th, 1917 the Germans launched the first air raids against London, using Zepellins.
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Stanley Baldwin
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"The bomber will always go through", former and future Prime Minister, speaking to the house of Commons, 1932.
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Radar
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The counterweapon to bombers. Tizard Committee was set up in Britain to develop a successful counterweapon to air attack.
- later it was used as an offensive weapon to locate U-boats and to bomb them. |
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The Tizard Mission
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he purpose of the mission, subject to carefully vetted security procedures, was to hand over to the US all the recent British technical advances in a "black box" … Nothing was excluded.
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The Cavity Magnetron
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- produces short range radio waves
- now it is in every microwave - Main word: resonance |
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National Defense Research Council
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- Supported research in US
- Developed radar in U.S. - Committee chaired by President of Carnegie Insitution (Vannevar Bush), President of MIT, President of Harvard, and President of Bell Labs/ National Academy of Sciences. - in the Summer of 1945 (after the War) it became the "Office of Scientific Research and Development" - Budget increases: 6.4 million (850 thousand dedicated to radar) to 113.5 million (43.2 million dedicated to radar ) with 3897 staff working in Division 14 (Radar division) |
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Battle of the Atlantic (1935 - 1945)
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Uboats -- used to starve Britain to submission
The Battle of the Atlantic pitted U-boats and other warships of the German Navy (Kriegsmarine) against Allied convoys. The convoys, coming mainly from North America and the South Atlantic and going to the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, were protected for the most part by the British and Canadian navies and air forces. These forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from 13 September 1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) after Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940. |
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The Proximity Fuse
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Second most important weapon in WWII: this would detect a plane and explode when it came close. British were careful to only use over water at first, so the Germans couldn't find any duds and reverse engineer them.
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Entomology
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the study of insects
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"the death of birth"
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E. O. Wilson has called extinction this
Edward Osborne Wilson (born June 10, 1929) is an American biologist, researcher (sociobiology, biodiversity), theorist (consilience, biophilia), naturalist (conservationism) and author. His biological specialty is myrmecology, a branch of entomology. The worst thing that can happen is the loss of genetic and species diversity by the destruction of natural habitats. |
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"weedy"
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species that can survive in a wide variety of environments
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the sixth extinction
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in process of possible greatest mass extinction in earth’s history, the sixth extinction, most likely due to humans
--> Human global mobility = greatest threat to nature The ongoing mass extinction of species due to human global mobility |
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passenger pigeon
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extinct bc of overhunting
· routinely canned |
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three ways humans cause extinctions:
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· hunting
· collecting · habitat destructions · (+ cascade effects) |
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chicxulub
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impact crater, 65 mya (buried, 180 miles wide)
· layers all the way to texas bc of mile-high tidal wave from the impact asteroid impact theory gained attention from fear of nuclear war Thought to have killed the dinosaurs |
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Anthropogenic (human) effects/extinction
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Begun by the human expansion, caused by the empowerment of fire and tools
Continued by the Neolithic encroachment of habitat, deforestation Accelerated by human population growth. Pleistocene extinctions (anthropogenic) Extinction caused by human effects as opposed to natural effects |
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"Overkill hypothesis" (Blitzkreig hypothesis)
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Killed off by humans
Elephant bird, Madagascar Argentavus, large condor Giant birds, went extinct during the land bridge |
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Scaffolding idea
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Romans used scaffolding to build arches
Stonge Henge required scaffolding to erect stones What kind of scaffolding was used to build towards the complexity of the living cell? |
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Pasteur-point
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Oxygen levels reached the point that it began to allow diversity of life
life started to get more diverse |
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Cambrian explosion
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500-600 million years ago, when most of the known creatures were crafted due to abundance of oxygen
Basic life forms were established at this point This also coincides with the 'snowball earth' melting |
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el cortito
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Short-handed hoe
o Centerpiece of struggle of farmworkers o Forced people to bend o Invented as a device so that the people watching the farms could tell who was malingering o Lots of people hurt their backs o Banned in 1975 in California. |
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solar panels
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Solar research
o Put solar panels at the roof of the white house o Ronald Reagon removed solar panels from the white house o Removed solar research budget of 500 million dollars o We would have been much further in solar research if not for the decision. |
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“6th place of decimals”
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Bacon and Descartes both thought science could be completed in their lifetimes
• Several professors have said similar things--Lord Kelvin (1890s): physics basically over, just working out details The idea, according to Lord Kelvin, that most of physics has been discovered and that only slight details are left |
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“Doubt is our product”
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flood with noise, funding researchers at Stanford, Harvard who would cast doubt
From Tobacco archives, regarding cancer studies |
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"human fossils"
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RACIST THEORIES THAT DEVELOPED
Hierarchy of apes to the most perfect humans – overly white ancient greeks(since all statues in pure white marble!) – J C Nott and G R Gliddon, 1857 – very influential book in america then Confusion of people –what was a person and what was an ape? Notion – inferior human = the inferior human races are apes like Racist idea that "lower" races are less evolved; an insight into the past i.e. living or "human" fossils |
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The "Frank Statement"
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January 4, 1954
A FRANK STATEMENT TO CIGARETTE SMOKERS is a much-cited tobacco industry advertisement of which every tobacco control advocate (and smoker, and nonsmoker) should be well aware. The industry published the Frank Statement in magazines and over 50 major newspapers across the United States in 1954 in response to reports of scientific experiments that showed cigarette tar caused cancerous tumors on mouse skin. The publication of the Frank Statement marked the beginning of the industry's long-term plan to disseminate misinformation about the health effects of tobacco to the American public. An ad by tobacco companies, the first to deny that cigarettes could cause lung cancer |
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Agnometrics
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measures of ignorance
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Alfred Crosby
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he provides biological and geographical explanations for why Europeans were able to succeed with relative ease in what he refers to as the Neo-Europes of Australasia, North America, and southern South America.
Three Great Human Inventions: Stone tools and fire: mass extinctions o allowed wide spreading of humans. Probably the most dramatic spreading around the earth of a species in history. * Artificial tools (ie stones) led to smaller canines and weaker nails on humans • Wherever humans went, with their tools and fire, they caused mass extinctions • Places where humans got there later, humans killed larger percentage of megafauna Agriculture: salinization o Massive growth of population o Increased reliability of food supplies o Allows containerization (before the tubular revolution) o Produced sedentary lifestyle from the ability to store food (world's first obesity/slaves/elites), can eat less because easier lifestyle o Allowed for resource management, a trait most species do not have o Diseases from living in close quarters with domesticated animals o New energy sources from wind and water o Nothing is taken from the earth that is not restored in the same day or season. o Salinization was the snow of the devil • Destroyed the soil to prevent further agriculture o Domestication and first flus/mass extinctions o Spread of weeds Heat engine: global warming o Do a single person to do the work of first dozens, then hundreds, and thousands of people o Not really spread until the 19th century o Fossil fuels were quickly realized as more BTU • For first time, human economy become unsustainable. We were no longer using renewable resources |
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Alfred Russell Wallace
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a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. He is best known for independently proposing a theory of natural selection which prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own theory.
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Archbishop James Ussher
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Ireland 1581-1656
* Thought Earth was created Oct. 23, 4004 BC at noon on a Saturday * If this was true, then evolution could not have had enough time to happen * but geological evidence started to indicate that the earth was older * Even though we mock this now, he was actually progressive because he was trying to use evidence to calculate it |
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argentavis magnificentus
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# (largest condor, as big as a fighter jet)
# Isolation bred this unusual configuration of the bird -- South America |
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asbestos
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Asbestos is toxic. The inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illnesses, including malignant mesothelioma, lung cancer, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis). Since the mid 1980s, many uses of asbestos have been banned in several countries.
Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its resistance to heat, electricity and chemical damage, its sound absorption and tensile strength. -- Used in cigarettes and eugenics |
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Atavistic Stigmata
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A key element in early biological theories of criminality; physical characteristics, believed to represent an earlier stage of human evolution, which could be used to differentiate the criminal from normal people.
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bower bird
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The male bower bird builds elaborate nests to attract a mate. When they were first discovered, the nests were thought to be the work of humans.
to attract females |
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Bridgewater Treatises
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works commissioned on Natural Theology by the Earl of Bridgewater. Inspired by Paley, these works were meant to celebrate a world rich in divine design.
he directed certain Trustees therein named, to invest in the public funds the sum of eight thousand pounds sterling ; this sum, with the accruing dividends thereon," to be held at the disposal of the President, for the time being, of the Royal Society of London, to be paid to the person or persons nominated by him. The testator further directed, that the person or persons selected by the said President should be appointed to write, print, and publish, one thousand copies of a work 'On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation an encyclopedia of natural theology commissioned of various writers by the Earl of Bridgewater to celebrate the divine in nature. |
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Brixham Cave
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England – 1858 – first "grid system" dig"; grids were cut into an archaeological dig, allowed to reconstruct in 3d the distribution of artifacts – founding of modern archaeology.
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Buck v. Bell
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1927 Supreme Court decision – 8 to 1 vote ruled that sterilization was legal. Has since been overthrown. “3 generations of imbeciles are enough.” # by 1920s – other countries had followed suit with sterilization laws |
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Butler Bill
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Publishers started removing evolution from textbooks - didn't put evolution back in until the 1950's when the teaching of evolution was revived.
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Carl Vogt
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thought disabled "monstrosities" were missing links
1817-1895 German scientist, thought that disabled people -- "monstrosities"-- were 'missing links' between human and apes. |
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Cessare Lombroso
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Atavistic Stigmata in Criminals
‘criminals features’ – parts of ears, body hair, long arms, big brow ridges, prehensile foot, mobile big toe, low narrow forehead, large ears, thick skull - genes that make you criminal? |
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Condorcet
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believes that humans face eternal upward progress (which Malthus takes issue with)
he advocated a liberal economy, free and equal public education, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women and people of all races. His ideas and writings were said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment and rationalism Malthus's critique of Condorcet: - Humans cannot escape laws of population. - Checks on population growth: 1. Raise mortality rate: Starvation, disease, vice, and misery (called "positive checks") * people may be more likely to commit vices and be misery prone 2. Lower birth rate: decreasing fertility (called "negative checks") * important for birth control movement=”Neo-Malthusians”) * Other solutions: improvements in agricultural technology- only short term "1743-1794 french natural philosopher. believed in human perfectability from savage --> civilization --> decline --> French republic Condorcet believes that humans face eternal upward progress related to scientific advancement" |
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correlation of parts
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Cuvier: 1800- Treatise on Comparative Anatomy correlation of parts, animals should be classified by the characteristics that are vital to their existence
in the living state, the parts are not arbitrarily put together, but work together to a common end. You won't have an animal that has big molars for grinding grass and big claws for catching things. There is consistency of parts. should classify organisms based on these sorts of vital functions. |
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Correlations of Variation
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#
Darwin didn't know genetics. * Gregor Mendel paper of 1865 was not read by most people of the time * It was only rediscovered in the 1900s # He was aware of Correlations of Variation: If you vary one thing something else will probably piggyback along with it. Mendelian genetic idea that if you vary one trait, another trait may correspond and vary with it (i.e. cats with blue eyes are often also deaf). Propagated by Alfred Russel Wallace |
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crinoid
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“feather stars”
1. 95 species of this kind 2. Evidence that evolution had occurred, these organisms did not go extinct but changed in shape and form There are only a few hundred known modern forms, but crinoids were much more numerous both in species and numbers in the past. Some thick limestone beds dating to the mid- to late-Paleozoic are almost entirely made up of disarticulated crinoid fragments. |
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Dayton, Tennessee
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Scopes trial was largely staged for publicity reasons in Dayton, Tennessee
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deep time
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which puts universal, natural, human history on an exponentially decreasing time scale)
No science of Life existed in ancient China. - this idea also came about around 1800 the concept of geologic time first recognized in the 11th century by the Persian geologist and polymath, Avicenna |
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Ecological Balance
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prevalence of species affect one another-- i.e. number of cats affect number of clover because cats eat mice, mice eat bee hives, bees pollinate clover. Idea was published in Origin of Species.
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escalator of being
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Lamarck’s evolutionary tree: he thought species which are simple were created relatively recently.
(The more simple an animal the less time it has been evolving) All animals trending upward in a sort of escalator of being. Darwin is the first to propose the "branching concept" in evolution. |
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Fields of Study Leading to Evolution
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DIFFERENT IDEOLOGIES
Paleontology (Gesner, Steno): fossils once alive Uniformitarian geology (Hutton, Lyell): deep time, believed that they could look at saltiness of ocean to predict age of the earth Oceanic Exploration (Voyage of the Beagle): geographic variation Biblical Criticism (Hegel, Strauss): mythic historicity Embryology, Primatology, Anthropology (recapitulation) Comparative Anatomy (Cuvier): unity of animal form, reality of extinction Natural Theology (Paley): ubiquity of adaptation, wondrous glory of God’s creation One of the original sources for theory of natural selection Transmutation (Lamarck): species mutable Competitive Capitalism (Malthus): struggle for existence |
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Francis Galton
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# founder of eugenics, coined the term "eugenics"
# committed “hereditarian,” arguing that a man’s successes in life are due to his genetic endowments at birth # Height, genius, and other qualities run in families – in particular, in the male line. For example, since all judges were male, Galton concluded that legal genius was a male trait. # Primacy of nature over nurture # Biology is destiny # Culture harming the fit # First to compare identical and non-identical twins to try and sort out what we are born with v. what can change # inventor of fingerprinting in solving crimes |
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fundamentalism
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new movement begun in 1907 at Biola in Los Angeles
refers to a belief in, and strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often religious in nature), sometimes as a reaction to perceived doctrinal compromises with modern social and political life The term fundamentalism was originally coined to describe a narrowly defined set of beliefs that developed into a movement within the Protestant community of the United States in the early part of the 20th century, and that had its roots in the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of that time. Until 1950, there was no entry for fundamentalism in the Oxford English Dictionary; the derivative fundamentalist was added only in its second 1989 edition new movement began at Biola college in 1907-- named after 'The Fundamentals' a series of books outlining conservative christian theology-- banning evolution. |
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Galapagos Islands
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# The Galápagos Islands were discovered in 1565
# They had originally been known as Encantados which means "enchanted" # The islands were primarily used as a stopping point for whalers, who collected tortoises from the island # The islands were later named for the tortoises; the word galápagos means tortoise(s?) # Darwin observed that the Galápagos were young in geological terms # What inspired Darwin was not how well-adapted all animals in the Galapagos were, but that they were in a sense variants of mainland animals. Eventually he concluded that the species of the Galapagos were brought to the island at some point in time; they did not originate on the island. |
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glossopetrie
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meaning "tongue", because the leaves were tongue-shaped) is the largest and best-known genus of the extinct order of seed ferns known as Glossopteridales (or in some cases as Arberiales or Dictyopteridiales).
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God or Gorilla
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As scholars debate the most appropriate way to teach evolutionary theory, Constance Clark provides an intriguing reflection on similar debates in the not-too-distant past. Set against the backdrop of the Jazz Age, God -- or Gorilla explores the efforts of biologists to explain evolution to a confused and conflicted public during the 1920s. Focusing on the use of images and popularization, Clark shows how scientists and anti-evolutionists deployed schematics, cartoons, photographs, sculptures, and paintings to win the battle for public acceptance. She uses representative illustrations and popular media accounts of the struggle to reveal how concepts of evolutionary theory changed as they were presented to, and absorbed into, popular culture.
quote on a sign in Inherit the Wind. Used as an anti-evolution slogan during Scopes Trial. |
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Henry Drummond
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was used for the character resembling Clarence Darrow in the popular American play about the Scopes/Monkey trial, Inherit the Wind by Robert E. Lee and Jerome Lawrence.
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Hydra
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is both animal and plantlike. Lamarck thought that our classifications were all false.
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Irish as apes
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(by English)
Notion – inferior human = the inferior human races are apes like. "human fossils" Jews – moral fossils, mummy race Asian, African and Australian aborigine insulted too Carl Vogt: thought disabled "monstrosities" were missing links racist/ social darwinist idea of the irish as apes, evolutionarily inferior to other Europeans. |
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Irish Elk
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had impractically huge antlers that served to attract a mate (sexual selection)
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John Scopes
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was arrested/brought to trial by Darwinists.
- Defense picked jury that would be likely to find him guilty so they could appeal it to the higher courts. - Scopes was not engaged to a preacher's daughter. - There is little evidence that Scopes even taught evolution. |
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Klystrontube
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Varian brothers (Russell and Sigurd) developed the Klystrontube.
now used at SLAC to generate high power waves for experiments |
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marine timekeeper
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John Harrison’s linked-balance (spring-based) marine timekeeper won prize in contest to invent accurate sea clock
John Harrison (24 March 1693 – 24 March 1776) was a self-educated English clockmaker. He invented the marine chronometer, a long-sought and critically-needed key piece in solving the problem of accurately establishing the East-West position, or longitude, of a ship at sea, thus revolutionising and extending the possibility of safe long distance sea travel in the Age of Sail. The problem was considered so intractable that the British Parliament offered a prize of £20,000 (comparable to £2.77 million / €3.52 million / $4.56 million in modern currency) for the solution |
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Matthew Harrison Brady
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The character of William Jennings Bryan (wanted Evolution to not be taught in schools)
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Robert Hooke
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Micrographia 1665 – microscope: the first good book about the use and exploration of a microscope he made and his discoveries. He saw the point of a needle, the edge of a razor. Fine silk, said it looked like a rough mat. He looked at hair, snails, crystals in urine, snowflakes, charcoal, petrified wood, the idea of cells came about from these observations because they looked like little holding cells. The sting of a bee has little hooks. The compound eyes of a fly. Mites, silverfish, things that live on us...-- the point of this was that at the same time as the population was becoming more aware of the vastness of the world/nature, they were also noticing the minute (which they could not explore before).
(Micrographia = observations from microscope put into a book) |
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natura non facit saltum
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This conception of evolution was reliant on the uniformitarianist idea that "natura non facit saltum" (i.e. "nature does not make leaps") and thus that evolution must always have been occurring in a similar fashion and at a similar rate as today
(Lamarck = no branching or extinction) |
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Negative Eugenics
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(e.g. sterilization, banning marriages between "unfit" individuals, or outright extermination of those deemed unfit)
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ONTOGENY RECAPITULATES PHYLOGENY
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The 3 parallels
* Infant – adult (ontogeny) * Ancestor – modern (phylogeny) * Savage to civilized (history) Primitive tribes very much like children – notion. Only europeans reached fully civilized state. Savages inherently criminals (long arms, hairy). |
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phrenology
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# Robert Fitzroy- captain of the beagle, creationist. He was interested in phrenology, i.e. determining people's personalities by reading "bumps" in the skull. Fitzroy did not like the shape of Darwin's nose because it signified a low intellect.
# If it weren't for Fitzroy's creationism, Darwin probably wouldn't have come up with his theory of evolution. |
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Pitt's Law:
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William Pitt
• Author (and then opponent) of a poor-relief bill • (Handicap comes from “Hand to Cap” = Beggar) Pitt's Law: • Barred children under 8 from working as chimney sweeps o God hadn’t provided too little food for all the mouths, but too many mouths for all the food o Charity hurts industry, Malthusian doctrine by Wliiam Pitt, who believed in poor relief and in charity, forebade children under 8 yers old from working as chimney sweeps (anti-Malthusian doctrine) |
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Plentitude
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we cannot think of something unless it is (the world is a storehouse); another way of think about this is the notion that the world is already full/fully-stocked
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positive eugenics
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(e.g. encouraging healthy marriages between "fit" individuals)
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preventive eugenics
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e.g. protection from mutagens or anything that can harm the "germ plasm", e.g. tobacco, alcohol, asbestos, heavy metals, x-rays
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Principles of Geology
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Charles Lyell (1797-1875) - one of the uniformitarianists
* Popularized uniformitarianism in England (Bigger deal than Hutton) * Liked to travel (Believed travel was 1st, 2nd, and 3rd requirement for modern geologist) o Most important book is Principles of Geology (1830-33), which discusses deep time and suppressed catastrophists * Against Cuvier’s catastrophic views, he was also an anti-evolutionist o Criticized those who support catastrophist theories as "religious nuts," or more formally bible literalists + But... # Catastrophists like Cuvier did not believe in the flood, etc. # Cuvier (was a catastrophist) did not think the earth was very young |
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punctuated equilibrium
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Stephen J Gould: He was attacking uniformitarianism as an ideological bias
He had the idea of punctuated equilibrium-Slow/steady Earth, every now and then something happens that drastically changes evolution -Eruption of Toba volcano might have put selective pressure on humans and led to evolution of human consciousness |
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reasons for U.S. creationism
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Separation of church and state in the US is largely a reaction to the abuse of religious power in countries where original immigrants came from. However, the separation has created a kind of dual truth perception in which neither religion nor science is moderated by the other. Not necessarily a good thing. There should be only one truth and it is up to the individual to find it.
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reasons why cigarettes took off
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*
Flue-curing: allowed people to inhale smoke (lower pH to 6.5 from 8.0) * Matches were invented to allow for easy lightups (friction matches-1827; safety matches-1855) * Mechanization of producing cigarettes helped lower prices; most of it was paper, so it's like printing your own money... cigarette rolling workers could only roll 200 a day, but the mechanization helped produce 100,000 cigarettes per day o Protos-M5: “deadliest machine in the world”, makes 16,000 cigarettes a minute o Many innovative machines helped bring production from 1 cigarette a minute up to 16,400 cigarettes a minute * The winning of WWI promoted cigarette use in the US (they used to be banned in several states, but was repealed after prohibition); soldiers smoked and spread the cigarettes o Photos of soldiers using creative methods to light cigarettes (machine gun example) * Governments are addicted to the taxes that come from tobacco, 1880s: 1/3 of federal income was from cigarettes taxes in US(pre income tax era); now due to the end of filial piety in China, more young people smoke (8% of gov't revenue) * Marketing appealed to popular scientific and political figures, also led to popularity of baseball cards and first industry to use sky writing as marketing, also featured religious themes, sports, medicinal cures, Listerine, Radium, ‘Asthma Cigarettes’ to treat respiratory troubles, racism and colleges o Brand stretching: way to keep brand alive even thought advertising is banned (cigarette branded clothing stores - MarlboroClassics, the "Cook Like A Man" Cookbook o Philip Morris required to support anti-smoking ads, but weren’t designed to appeal to teens, full of suggestive images, viewers unable to relate or connect to subjects of ad, full of dual rhetoric—saying one thing, communicating another |
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Gigantic Cigarette Facts
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Near 6 trillion cigarettes smoked every year
Will kill 1 billion in 21st century Major cause of breast cancer and global warming (and poverty) People of Greece smoke 3000 cig/ person/ year, highest in the world (The U.S. was slightly above the world average, and California was right at the average). Flue Curing- 1839- slave tended fire with charcoal and discovered a way to keep high sugar levels- made it possible to inhale smoke cigarettes Matches made cigarettes mobile 80,000 Zippos made every day 1890-1920 15 states banned smoking As addictive as heroine or cocaine Gov depends on their revenue China smokes 1/3 of world’s cigarettes Cigarettes were all uniting Science, religious, sports themed packs “Not made for children under 6” 550 known images of tobacco in Native American drawings |
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Sarah Bartman
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he most famous of at least two Khoikhoi women who were exhibited as sideshow attractions in 19th century Europe under the name Hottentot Venus—"Hottentot" as the then-current name for the Khoi people, now considered an offensive term, and "Venus" in reference to the Venus figurines (Racist theory)
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scaffolding theory
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Romans used scaffolding to build arches
Stonge Henge required scaffolding to erect stones What kind of scaffolding was used to build towards the complexity of the living cell? |
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sexual selection
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subset of natural selection
- individuals would compete for the right to mate by the “law of battle” - sexual selection explained sexual dimorphism and traits that seemed to serve no functional purpose. the idea that animals have to compete among members of their sex to find a mate. this explains sexual dimorphism and the presence of traits that seem to serve no practical purpose (i.e. male v. female peacocks, irish elk) |
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social functions of science
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• Discovery: Expand what we know – satisfy thirst for knowledge
• Invention: Help make life easier – increase production, communication • Apology: Defend some status of fluxus quo – scientific racism, Nazi science • Agnotology: Create ignorance – via distractions, decoy research, filibuster research keep the question open for further research (tobacco industry, climate change) |
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Sputnik
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was a series of robotic spacecraft missions launched by the Soviet Union. The first of these, Sputnik 1, launched the first human-made object to orbit the Earth. That launch took place on October 4, 1957 as part of the International Geophysical Year and demonstrated the viability of using artificial satellites to explore the upper atmosphere.
The surprise launch of Sputnik 1, coupled with the spectacular failure of the United States of America's first two Project Vanguard launch attempts, shocked the United States, which responded with a number of early satellite launches, including Explorer 1, Project SCORE, and Courier 1B. The Sputnik crisis also led to the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972 |
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survival of the fittest
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a phrase which is shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance. Originally applied by Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology of 1864, Spencer drew parallels to his ideas of economics with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by what Darwin termed natural selection.
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The Tizzard Committee/Mission
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In early 1940 Sir Henry Tizard made the suggestion that the British radar technology secrets should be 'shared' with the Americans in order that their superior production facilities could be made more readily available to aid the British war effort. Neither Churchill nor Watson Watt was in agreement. Nevertheless, he arranged for his old colleague from the 1935 committee, A.V. Hill to go to Washington to explore the possibilities. His report to Tizard was optimistic.
The mission established that Britain was 'in the lead' on most counts but that certain aspects of American radar were more advanced. It was the Magnetron however, that was greeted with the greatest enthusiasm. Initially, a new 'Microwave Committee' was set up with Dr Alfred Loomis as Chairman. It was this man who played the decisive role in converting US radar to centimetric wavelengths. The Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Defence (CSSAD, a.k.a. the “Tizard Committee”) was instituted by the British Air Ministry in late 1934 to consider new technologies that the Royal Air Force might use to defend its territory against attack by bombers. The Tizard Committee was set up in Britain to develop a successful counterweapon to air attack, helped develop radar. (Aug-Sept 1940). The purpose of the mission, subject to carefully vetted security procedures, was to hand over to the US, since Britain lacked manpower, all the recent British technical advances in a "black box" |
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Thomas Henry Huxley
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agnostic -> term coined by Thomas Henry Huxley (Man's Place in Nature)
known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution |
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tiktaalik
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is a genus of extinct sarcopterygian (lobe-finned) fish from the late Devonian period, with many features akin to those of tetrapods (four-legged animals).[1] It is an example from several lines of ancient sarcopterygian fish developing adaptations to the oxygen-poor shallow-water habitats of its time,[2] which led to the evolution of amphibians. Well-preserved fossils were found in 2004 on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada.
Tiktaalik lived approximately 375 million years ago. Paleontologists suggest that it was an intermediate form between fish such as Panderichthys, which lived about 380 million years ago, and early tetrapods such as Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, which lived about 365 million years ago. Its mixture of fish and tetrapod characteristics led one of its discoverers, Neil Shubin, to characterize Tiktaalik as a "fishapod".[3][4] |
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titanis walleri
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(terror bird) - Large enough to eat a horse. (South America)
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transmutation of species
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term used by Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1809 for his theory that described the altering of one species into another. It was one of the names commonly used for evolutionary ideas in the 19th century before Charles Darwin published On The Origin of Species (1859). Other names used in this period include the development hypothesis (one of the terms used by Darwin) and the theory of regular gradation, used by William Chilton in the periodical press such as The Oracle.[1] Transformation is another word used quite as often as transmutation in this context. These early 19th century evolutionary ideas played an important role in the history of evolutionary thought.
The proto-evolutionary thinkers of the 18th and early 19th century had to invent terms to label their ideas, and the terminology did not settle down until some time after the publication of the Origin of Species. The word evolution was quite a late-comer: it can be seen in Herbert Spencer's Social Statics of 1851, and there is at least one earlier example, but it was not in general use until about 1865-70. "descent with modification: 1. superfecundity-- multiplying power of animals-- high geometrical powers of increase 2. only a few can survive til maturity-- struggle for existence-- 'all nature is at war' 3. Heritable variation-- comparable to animal husbandry 4. survival of the fittest" |
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Trinity
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july 16 1945 5:30 am mountain war time, trinity site zero, alamorgado test range, jornada del muerto desert – test site of first the A-bomb
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tubular revolution
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The packaging of century delights into mobile units make consumption much easier (ammunition cartridges, bottled shampoos, sound is bottled, sight is bottled (film) etc…)
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Wilhelm Roentgen
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was a German physicist, who, on 8 November 1895, produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range today known as x-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.[1]:1
Following transliteration conventions for characters accented by an umlaut, "Röntgen" in English is spelled "Roentgen", and that is the usual rendering found in English-language scientific and medical references. |
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"duck and cover"
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From Atomic Cafe, BS strategy suggested to avoid nuclear radiation
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"old time religion"
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Line repeated ad nauseum in Inherit the Wind; anti-evolution
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bacterial flagellum
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used as an anti-Darwinian argument of an irreducibly complex structure that could not have evolved through naturalistic means. argues for intelligent design.
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length of the day
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Turning point during the Scopes Trial, when William Jennings Bryan, a self-proclaimed expert on the Bible, admits that the "7 days" in Genesis are of indeterminate length (may be a 25 hour day, etc). Loses audience favor with this exchange.
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