Western Civilization: Renaissance

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R & R: Architecture

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Filippo: Brunelleschi: The earliest Resaissance dome was built for the cathedral of Florence between 1420 and 1436 according to the design by the Florentine architect Brunelleschi In Rome, St. Peter’s Basilica received a magnificent dome designed by Michelangelo and begun in 1546 Achitecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, in which there was a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Italian architects revived the use of the dome, which had been neglected in the Middle Ages (although Muslim architects did make frequest use of this Roman design in their mosques Renaissance architects also showed a renewed sensitivity to the use of classical columns The Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere.

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R & R: Architecture: Filippo: Brunelleschi

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Filippo: Brunelleschi: The earliest Resaissance dome was built for the cathedral of Florence between 1420 and 1436 according to the design by the Florentine architect Brunelleschi In Rome, St. Peter’s Basilica received a magnificent dome designed by Michelangelo and begun in 1546 Achitecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, in which there was a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Italian architects revived the use of the dome, which had been neglected in the Middle Ages (although Muslim architects did make frequest use of this Roman design in their mosques Renaissance architects also showed a renewed sensitivity to the use of classical columns The Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere.

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R & R: The Protestant Reformation: Augsburg Confession

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Renaissance and Reformation: The Protestant Reformation: Augsburg Confession 1530: Primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church 1526: the princes of the Empire met at the Diet of Speyer and established a compromise which allowed Lutheran prices freedom to worship as they chose When a second Diet of Speyer in 1529 repealed this agreement, the Lutheran princes rose in protest and thus became know as the “Protestants” * Drawn up by the reformer Melanchthon as a conciliatory gesture 1531 the Lutheran princes organized themselves into a defensive alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League.

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R & R: Florence: The Bonfire of the Vanities

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Girolamo Savonarola (1452 – 1498) – Dominican preacher: railed against the luxury and corruption of the Medici age Savonarola convinced the Florentines to destroy works of art in repentance (the “bonfire of the vanities”), but he lost popular support and was burned at the stake after Pope Alexander VI excommunicated him as a dangerous fanatic * refers to the burning of objects that are deemed to be occasions of sin. The most famous one took place on 7 February 1497, when supporters of the Dominican priest Girolamo Savonarola collected and publicly burned thousands of objects in Florence, Italy, on the Shrove Tuesday festival. The focus of this destruction was on objects that might tempt one to sin, including vanity items such as mirrors, cosmetics, fine dresses, and even musical instruments. Other targets included immoral books, manuscripts of secular songs, and pictures. Such bonfires were not invented by Savonarola, however; they were a common accompaniment to the outdoor sermons of San Bernardino da Siena in the first half of the century.

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Hieronymus Bosch

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Prominent Dutch painter ( + Pieter Bruegel the Elder)- famous for his allegorical works depicting fantastic scenes of devils tormenting people * Early Netherlandish painter of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Many of his works depict sin and human moral failings. Used images of demons, half-human animals and machines to evoke fear and confusion to portray the evil of man. His works contain complex, highly original, imaginative, and dense use of symbolic figures and iconography, some of which was obscure even in his own time. Pieter Bruegel the Elder: exceptional for his lively and intricate scenes of peasant life

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R & R: Sandro Botticelli

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* Italian painter of the Florentine school during the Early Renaissance (Quattrocento). ( Less than a hundred years later, this movement, under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici, was characterized by Giorgio Vasari as a "golden age", a thought, suitably enough, he expressed at the head of his Vita of Botticelli. ) Context: The Medici were great patrons of the arts, funding the projects of artists like Botticelli and Michelangelo His posthumous reputation suffered until the late 19th century; since then his work has been seen to represent the linear grace of Early Renaissance painting, and The Birth of Venus and Primavera rank now among the most familiar masterpieces of Florentine art.

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R & R: Brethren of the Common Life

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Religious Roman Catholic community founded in the 14th century by Gerard Groote, formerly a successful and worldly educator who had had a religious experience and preached a life of simple devotion to Jesus Christ. The Brethren's Confraternity is best known for having inspired the Modern Devotion.

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R & R: Filippo Brunelleschi

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One of the foremost architects of the Italian Renaissance. Italian architects revived the use of the dome, which had been neglected in the Middle Ages (although Muslim architects did make frequent us of this Roman design in their mosques.) The earliest Renaissance dome was built for the cathedral of Florence between 1420 and 1436 according to the design by the Florentine architect Brunelleschi

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R & R: Leonardo Bruni

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Leading humanist, historian and a chancellor of Florence. Has been called the first modern historian. Petrarch was not a political figure – averse to the idea of a legal career (which his father wanted him to pursue), he shunned politics and sought the solitude that was conducive to a career as a writer – thus, he advocated the contemplative life over the active Many of the humanists he inspired, however, did not share this attitude Men like Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni advocated “civic humanism” which maintained that the most virtuous kind of life was one that used hum

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R & R: Diversification of Protestantism: John Calvin

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After the generation of Luther and Zwingli, the Protestant movement was dominated by the French theologian John Calvin (1509 – 1564) who established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland. Like other reformers, Calvin was intolerant of those who opposed his position Supported the execution of Michael Servetus (1511-1553) for denying the existenvce of the Trinity Calvin established the Reformed tradition of Protestantism Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536-1559): stressed the sovereignty of God and the utter dependence of human beings on God’s mercy To emphasize that neither good works nor faith but only the power of God alone can guarantee salvation, Calvin taught the doctrine of double predestination – that God has determined in advance not only that some will be saved, but also that others will be damned Calvin was centered primarily in Switzerland, but there was Calvinist minorities throughout Europe Huguenots: Those in France The Scottish reformer, John Knox (1513-1572), established Calvinism in Scotland, founding its Presbyterian Church Calvin’s Genevan Acamdemy, which was designed to train preachers, was instrumental in the spread of his reform movement * French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed theology. In Geneva, his ministry both attracted other Protestant refugees and over time made that city a major force in the spread of Reformed theology. He is famous for his teachings and writings, in particular for his Institutes of the Christian Religion.

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: Capuchin Order

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The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin (O.F.M. Cap; in England and Ireland, O.S.F.C) is an order of friars in the Catholic Church, among the chief offshoots of the Franciscans. The worldwide head of the Capuchins, called a minister general, is currently Father Mauro Jöhri. The order arose in 1520 when Matteo da Bascio, an "Observant" Franciscan friar native to the Italian region of Marche, became inspired by God with the idea that the manner of life led by the Franciscans of his day was not the one which St. Francis had envisaged. He sought to return to the primitive way of life in solitude and penance as practiced by the founder of his order. His superiors tried to suppress these innovations, and Friar Matteo and his first companions were forced into hiding from Church authorities, who sought to arrest them for having abandoned their religious duties. They were given refuge by the Camaldolese monks, in gratitude for which they later adopted the hood or capuccio worn by that order--which was the mark of a hermit in that region of Italy--and the practice of wearing a beard. “One of the most important features of the Catholic Reformation was the foundation of new religious orders, of which the most prominent was the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founde in 1534 by St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) and approved by Paul III in n1540 - Other new religious orders which served Catholicism in various wasy include the Theatines, Ursulines, and Capuchins”

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: Carmelite Order

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"“The Carmelite order was rejuvenated by the mystic St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) and her disciple St. John of the Cross (1542-1591)” •

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R & R: Literature: Baldassare Castiglione

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(1478-1529) Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a very prominent Renaissance author.[1] “The Book of the Courtier” – outlines the education and rules of etiquette which the well-rounded statesman should embody, and thus epitomizes the refined cultural ideals of Renaissance Humanism * The book is based on Castiglione's experience at the court of Duke Guidobaldo Montefeltro of Urbino. It describes the ideal court and courtier, going into great detail about the philosophical and cultured discussions that occurred at Urbino. “The book defined the ideal Renaissance gentleman.”

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: Council of Trent

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The Catholic Church was slow to respond to the Protestant challenge because it did not have an effective leader until Pope Paul III (1534 – 1549), but the experience ultimately revived the papacy as an effective institution for spiritual leadership Paul III’s most important action was to initiate the Council of Trent, which met 3 times between 1545 and 1563, establishing a thorough reform of the Roman Catholic Church and defining its dogmatic theological position in response to the issues raised by the Protestants Although the Catholic Reformation is also known as the Counter Reformation, it was not merely a response to Protestantism; it also channeled energetic initiatives that were born of genuine faith and piety among the Catholic faithful

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: New Religious Orders

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One of the most important features of the Catholic Reformation was the foundation of new religious orders, of wich the most prominent was the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founded in 1534 by St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) and approved by Paul III in 1540 Ignatius had been a soldier who turned to the religious life during hospitalization for a battlefield injury in 1521 He wrote a manual for meditation known as the Spiritual Exercise and soon attracted followers The Jesuits specialized in education, founding schools of hight quality for the education of Catholics and dedicating themselves to the conversion of Protestants through well-informed preaching Missionary activity throughout the world was a major part of their work In the 1540s, the Jesuit St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552) preached in the Far East, including India, Southeast Asia, and Japan (he died on his way to China) The Jesuits acquired a reputation for fanatical devotion to the papacy Other new religious orders which served Catholicism in various ways included the Theatines, Ursulines, and Capuchins (a revival of the Franciscasns)

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: Roman Inquisition and Index

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* The Roman Inquisition was a system of tribunals developed by the Holy See during the second half of the 16th century, responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of a wide array of crimes related to heresy, including sorcery, blasphemy, and witchcraft, as well for censorship of printed literature. The tribunals covered most of the Italian peninsula as well as Malta and also existed in isolated pockets of papal jurisdiction in other parts of Europe, including Avignon, in France. * * While the Roman Inquisition was originally designed to combat the spread of Protestantism in Italy, the institution outlived its original purpose, and the system of tribunals lasted until the mid 18th century, when the Italian states began to suppress the local inquisitions, effectively eliminating the power of the church to prosecute heretical crimes. * Another measure taken by Paul III to revive Catholicism was the Roman Inquisition (also known as the Holy Office), founded in 1542. This organization was not directly related to the medieval Inquisition, and it was also distinct from the Spanissh Inquisition, which was established in 1478. The Roman Inquisition was concerned primarily with monitoring newly published books for evidence of heretical theology, and thus focused its attention on the intellectual elite, which included men like Martin Luther and John Calvin It was responsible form publishing an Index of Prohibited Books, of which the first appeared in 1559. The purpose of the index was to identify books that were considered dangerous to the Roman Catholic faith As a form of censorship, it threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who read or distributed books on the index without special dispensation

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: Roman Inquisition and Index: Index of Prohibited Books

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The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church. The avowed aim of the list was to protect the faith and morals of the faithful by preventing the reading of immoral books or works containing theological errors. The various editions also contain the rules of the Church relating to the reading, selling and censorship of books. Books that passed inspection were printed with nihil obstat ("nothing forbids") or Imprimatur ("let it be printed") on the title page. The list was not simply a reactive work. Roman Catholic authors had the opportunity to defend their writings and could prepare a new edition with the necessary corrections or elisions, either to avoid or to limit a ban. Pre-publication censorship was encouraged; self-censorship, however, was incalculable. Some notable writers with works on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum: René Descartes John Calvin Dante Alighieri (only his Monarchia) Nicolaus Copernicus Desiderius Erasmus Galileo Galilei Edward Gibbon Immanuel Kant Martin Luther Niccolò Machiavelli Voltaire Johannes Kepler (Another measure taken by Paul III to revive Catholicism was the Roman Inquisition (also known as the Holy Office), founded in 1542. This organization was not directly related to the medieval Inquisition, and it was also distinct from the Spanissh Inquisition, which was established in 1478. The Roman Inquisition was concerned primarily with monitoring newly published books for evidence of heretical theology, and thus focused its attention on the intellectual elite, which included men like Martin Luther and John Calvin It was responsible form publishing an Index of Prohibited Books, of which the first appeared in 1559. The purpose of the index was to identify books that were considered dangerous to the Roman Catholic faith As a form of censorship, it threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who read or distributed books on the index without special dispensation.

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Johannes Reuchlin

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German humanist, (1455 – 1522) - advocated the study of languages for a better understanding of Scripture * For much of his life, he was the real centre of all Greek and Hebrew teaching in Germany. * Like Erasmus, he mastered Greek in order to read the New Testament He then went on to master Hebrew as well in order to read the Old Testament In 1506 he published a Hebrew grammar and in 1509 convinced the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1493 – 1519) to reject the Inquisition’s call to burn the Talmud Erasmus, More, and Reuchlin were joined by the French theologian Jacques Lefever d’Etaples (c 1450-1536) in the hope of reforming Christian society through humanistic education They remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church throughout their lives – their works, however, inspired radical reformers who were less willing to compromise

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R & R: Christian Humanism: More

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Erasmus traveled throughout Europe and corresponded with leading thinkers Thomas More – “Utopia” - One of these was Thomas More (1478 – 1535): English statesman who criticized English society in his satirical essay, Utopia (1516): describes an ideal society free from poverty and other social evils because of the inhabitants have announced money and private property Coined the word "utopia", a name he gave to an ideal, imaginary island nation whose political system he described in the eponymous book published in 1516. Was beheaded in 1535 when he refused to sign the Act of Succession that would make Henry VIII Supreme Head of the Church in England.

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Erasmus

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Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c 1466 – 1536) used his classical education to acquire a deeper understanding of early Christianity Prepared a Greek edition of the New Testament and provided a commentary and a Latin translation that corrected errors in St. Jerome’s Vulgate Erasmus wanted to bring Christianity back to a simpler form based on a careful reading of the Bible, which he believed should be studied by all Christians, not just priests and theologians He wrote his satirical Praise of Folly (1509) to demonstrate how far the religion of Christ had strayed from its roots He was not, however, willing to oppose the papacy, but hoped to reform the church from within * wrote in a "pure" Latin style and enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists." Has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists."[1] Renaissance humanists were especially learned and interested in the study of ancient languages. Using humanist techniques he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament which raised questions that would be influential in the Reformation. He also wrote The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works.

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Religious Fervor: Gerard Groote

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The movement was inspired by the preaching of the German mystic, Meister Eckhart (1260-1327) and became known as the Modern Devotion, preached by a Dutch layman, Gerard Groote (1349 – 1384), whose followers founded the Brethren of the Common Life

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Religious Fervor

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Beginning in the 14th century, a religious movement developed among the laity in northern Europe that sought to bring the experience of God into daily life The movement was inspired by the preaching of the German mystic, Meister Eckhart (1260-1327) and became known as the Modern Devotion, preached by a Dutch layman, Gerard Groote (1349 – 1384), whose followers founded the Brethren of the Common Life Their ideals are expressed in “The Imitation of Christ” by Thomas a Kempis (c 1380 – 1471) Many of them were also inspired by the revival of classicism that spread from Italy; in their schools they taught Latin and Greek

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism

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Men like Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) and Leonardo Bruni (1369-1444) advocated “civic humanism”, which maintained that the most virtuous kind of life was one that used humanistic study for public service Classical republicanism is also known as civic humanism, a term first employed by the German scholar of late medieval and early modern Italian history, Hans Baron. And although in certain cases and with certain scholars there is a subtle distinction between the two, they are for all intents and purposes interchangeable. Civic humanism is a bit wider in scope and stresses the central role of civic virtue in the preservation of the classically Roman/Florentine ideal of political liberty. Leading exponents of this dual concept are Hannah Arendt, J. G. A. Pocock, Quentin Skinner, and Philip Pettit.[5 Classical republicanism is a form of republicanism originating from and inspired by the governmental forms and writings of classical antiquity. After a gaping centuries-long period of neglect due to unique arrangements of medieval feudalism, its main ideas were recovered and went on to flourish during the Renaissance and Enlightenment. In the classical period itself the term republicanism did not exist, however the term res publica, which translates literally as "things public," was in usage. There were a number of theorists who wrote on political philosophy during this period such as Aristotle, Polybius, and Cicero, and their ideas became the essential core of classical republicanism. The ideology of republicanism blossomed during the Italian Renaissance, most notably in Florence, when a number of authors looked back to the classical period and used its examples to formulate ideas about ideal governance. Most prominent among these was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527). It has also been said that Machiavelli is not a classical republican. That classical republicanism actually refers to a philosophy developed primarily in the early modern period is acknowledged by many scholars to be confusing; hence some now use the term early modern republicanism to cover this branch of political thought. ]

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R & R: Martin Luther: The Peasants' Revolt and The Jews

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In 1525 the German peasants staged an uprising to better their economic situation and cited Luther’s works in support of their cause Luther thought they misunderstood his message (he was interested in religious, not economic, reform), but he sympathized with their plight and tried to reach a compromise between them and their lords When the peasants resorted to violence, however (???), he side firmly with the lords and urged forceful suppression of the revolt. A similar pattern is seen in Luther’s treatment of the Jews. At first he was tolerant, hoping that they would convert to his reformed version of Christianity; but by 1537, when it was clear that the Jews were not interested in becoming Lutherans’ he wrote bitter polemics against them.

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R & R: New Monarchies: Thomas Cromwell

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English statesman who served as King Henry VIII's chief minister from 1532 to 1540.

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples

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Erasmus, More, and Reuchlin were joined by the French theologian Jacques Lefevre d’Etaples (1450 - 1536) in the hope of reforming Christian society through humanistic education They remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church throughout their lives Their works, however, inspired radical reformers who were less willing to compromise French theologian and humanist. He was a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. Although he anticipated some ideas that were important to the Protestant Reformation, Lefèvre remained a Roman Catholic throughout his life, and sought to reform the church without separating from it. Several of his books were condemned as heretical, and he spent some time in exile. He was, however, a favorite of the king of France, Francis I, and enjoyed his protection. Christian humanism is the belief that human freedom and individualism are intrinsic (natural) parts of, or are at least compatible with, Christian doctrine and practice. It is a philosophical union of Christian and humanist principles.

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R & R: Protestant Reformation: Religious Fighting: Diet of Speyer

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"I 1526: the princes of the Empire met at the Diet of Speyer (, Germany) and established a compromise which allowed Lutheran princes freedom to worship as they chose II 1529: When a second Diet of Speyer repealed this agreement, the Lutheran princes rose in protest and thus became known as “Protestants” In 1530, a Lutheran creed known as the Augsburg Confession was drawn up by the reformer Melanchthon as a conciliatory gesture 1531: The Lutheran prices organized themselves into a defensive alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League 1546: Emperor Charles V became free of international wars, and then struck the Schmalkaldic League 1555: The Peace of Augsburg allowed each ruler of the approximately 300 states within the Holy Roman Empire to choose whether his state would be Catholic or Lutheran About ½ the population of Germany thus became Lutheran, mostly in the north (as did their Scandinavian neighbors) •

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R & R: Protestant Reformation: Religious Fighting: Diet of Worms

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Many shared Luther’s objections (to Tetzel’s sale of Indulgences), and soon a movement began that transformed an invitation for theological debate into a schism that altered the character of Western Christianity Luther was excommunicated for his continuing opposition in 1521 He refused to recant at the Diet of Worms, responding “Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.” The previous year, Pope Leo X had issued the Papal bull Exsurge Domine, outlining forty-one purported errors found in Martin Luther's 95 theses and other writings related to or written by him. Luther was summoned by the emperor. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained an agreement that if Luther appeared, he would be promised safe passage to and from the meeting. Such a guarantee was essential after the treatment of Jan Hus, who was tried and executed at the Council of Constance in 1415 despite a safe conduct pass. The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Luther used these theses to display his displeasure with the Church's sale of indulgences, and this ultimately gave birth to Protestantism. Luther's popularity encouraged others to share their doubts about the Church and to protest against its medieval ways; it especially challenged the teachings of the Church on the nature of penance, the authority of the pope and the usefulness of indulgences. They sparked a theological debate that would result in the Reformation and the birth of the Lutheran, Reformed, and Anabaptist traditions within Christianity.

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R & R: Arts and Architecture: Economic Innovations: Double Entry Bookkeeping

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"The artistic and scholarly endeavors of the Italian Renaissance would not have been possible without the wealth generated by new financial practices during the recovery from the Black Death The practices include: •

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Albrecht Durer

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"Later northern artists were influenced by Italian art and excelled in realism •

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Religious Fervor: Meister Eckhart

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(1260-1327) Beginning in the 14th century, a religious movement developed among the laity in northern Europe that sought to bring the experience of God into daily life * The movement was inspired by the preaching of the German mystic, Meister Eckhart and became known as the Modern Devotion, preached by a Dutch layman, Gerard Groote (1349-1384), whose followers founded the Brethren of the Common Life * Coming into prominence during the decadent Avignon Papacy and a time of increased tensions between the Franciscans and Eckhart's Dominican Order of Preacher Friars, he was brought up on charges later in life before the local Franciscan-led Inquisition. Tried as a heretic by Pope John XXII, his "Defence" is famous for his reasoned arguments to all challenged articles of his writing and his refutation of heretical intent. He purportedly died before his verdict was received, although no record of his death or burial site has ever been discovered. Well known for his work with pious lay groups such as the Friends of God and succeeded by his more circumspect disciples of John Tauler and Henry Suso, he has gained a large following in recent years.

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Engraving

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Another innovation of northern Europeans was the woodcut, which allowed the mass-production of identical images by impressing them onto paper (typically onto pages in books) Since woodcuts deteriorated with use, they were replaced in time by metal plates, which also allowed finer lines and thus more intricate engravings A prominent northern artist who became skilled in this medium was Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), who studied art in Italy and brought its styles back to Germany By developing engravings which were reproduced in books, Durer quickly disseminated the principles of Italian art north of the Alps

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R & R: The New Monarchies: England: War of the Roses

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The English emerged from the Hundred Years’ War badly shaken, and England descended into a period of civil strife known as the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) as two noble houses - Lancaster and York – fought over control of the kingdom. In the end it was neither of these dynasties, but the House of Tudor, that emerged triumphant Established on the throne by his victory at Bosworth Field against Richard III of York (1483-1485), Henry VII (1485-1509) established England as a new monarchy Henry continued to work with Parliament, streamlined the administration, and acquired lucrative commercial contracts for English merchants in Italy He enhanced royal power by establishing the Court of the Start Chamber, which was designed to weaken the power of troublesome nobles by trying them without the benefit of a jury and allowing torture to exact confessions

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R & R: Protestant Reformation in England: Henry the VIII

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Unlike the movements on the Continent, the Reformation in England resulted not from the theological differences with Rome, but from a conflict between the English monarchy and the papacy Henry VIII (1491-1547) requested an annulment of his marriage to Catharine of Aragon because she did not produce a male heir, but Pope Clement VII (1523-1534) denied it Clement was a virtual prisoner of the Emperor Charles V, the nephew of Catherine, and thus could not have grated Henry’s request even if he was so inclined Henry played up popular discontent with the extremely wealthy Catholic Church and in 1532 received support for his break with Rome from Parliament, which passed laws that shifted authority over the Church of England from the pope to the king In addition to divorcing Catherine and marrying Anne Boleyn (Henry married six times in all), he took possession of church property, closed monasteries, and required his subjects to take an oath of supremacy recognizing his religious authority Prominent individuals who refused were executed, including the former chancellor, the humanist Thomas More (1478-1535) Yet Henry VIII was conservative about religious doctrine, as his Six Articles (1539) outlining the theology of the Anglican Church demonstrate Religious doctrine did not significantly change until the reigns of Henry’s successors, his son Edward VI (1547-1553) and his daughter Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

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R & R: Protestant Reformation in England

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* The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in the Holy Roman Empire that began in 1517, though its roots lay further back in time. The Reformation involved cultural, economic, political and religious aspects. Began with Martin Luther and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The movement began as an attempt to reform the Catholic Church. Many western Catholics were troubled by what they saw as false doctrines and malpractices within the Church, particularly involving the teaching and sale of indulgences. Another major contention was the practice of buying and selling church positions (simony) and what was seen at the time as considerable corruption within the Church's hierarchy. This corruption was seen by many at the time as systemic, even reaching the position of the Pope.

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R & R: The New Monarchies: Henry the VIII

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The reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547) is marked primarily by his break with Rome, but he strengthened his monarchy in many other ways Used the lands he seized from the church to build up a new class of loyal nobles who were dependent on his dynasty for their position Boosted national sentiment by working closely with Parliament to give his subjects a sense that the government was a partnership between the monarchy and the people Was assisted by able administrators like Cardinal Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell Built up the English fleet and fought limited wars on the continent to maintain the balance of power In 1497, hired an Italian mariner, John Cabot to seek a direct route to Asia in the northern hemisphere (however, no English expedition circumnavigated the globe until 1577-1580, when Sire Francis Drake landed on the west coast of North America and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth)

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R & R: The Northern Renaissance: Jan van Eyck

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(Architecture and sculpture north of the Alps remained closely tied to the Gothic culture of the Middle Ages and lacked the revival of classicism that characterized the Italian Renaissance. The most innovative form of art was painting, and Flemish painters were leaders in the field. Their religious subject matter and style were developed from Gothic book illumination, but now images were more commonly painted on wooden panels, often as part of altar-pieces for the decoration of churches) ! Early Netherlandish painter active in Bruges and considered one of the best Northern European painters of the 15th century. There is a common misconception, which dates back to the sixteenth-century Vite of the Tuscan artist and biographer Giorgio Vasari, that Jan van Eyck invented oil painting. It is however true that he achieved, or perfected, new and remarkable effects using this technique. Jan van Eyck has often been linked as brother to painter and peer Hubert van Eyck, because both have been thought to originate from the same town, Maaseik in Limburg (Belgium). Another brother, Lambert van Eyck is mentioned in Burgundian court documents, and there is a conjecture that he too was a painter, and that he may have overseen the closing of Jan van Eyck's Bruges workshop. Another significant, and rather younger, painter who worked in Southern France, Barthélemy van Eyck, is presumed to be a relation. Early Flemish masters, such as Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden (c 1400 – 1464), shared with their Italian contemporaries a keen interest in naturalism, often expressed in minute detail (as seen in the the folds of drapery, textures of surfaces and background landscapes), but they lacked fully developed linear perspective. They relied instead on aerial perspective, that is, the atmospheric effects of light and haze between foreground and background to express the illusion of distance.

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Florence: Marsilio Ficino

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Humanist who translated the complete works of Plato from Greek into Latin for the first time Ficino also translated the works of Neoplatonists such as Plotinus and wrote his own works of philosophy and theology Although the Medici suffered exile twice after Lorenzo died, the were able to return to power each time with help from Spain * One of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's school, had enormous influence on the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy.

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Florence: Girolamo Savonarola

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! Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until his execution in 1498. ! Known for his book burning, destruction of what he considered immoral art, and hostility to the Renaissance. ! Vehemently preached against what he saw as the moral corruption of the clergy, and his main opponent was Pope Alexander VI. ( The first exile of the Medici occurred in 1494 when the French invaded Italy and seized Florentine territory, prompting the people to depose the Medici despots and restore the republic Florence then came under the influence of a Dominican preacher, Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498), who railed against the luxury and corruption of the Medici age. He convinced the Florentines to destroy works of art in repentance (the “bonfire of the vanities”), but he lost popular support and was burned at the stake after Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) excommunicated him as a dangerous fanatic )

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R & R: The Northern Renaissance: Johannes Gutenberg

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German goldsmith and printer Credited with inventing movable type printing in Europe around 1439 and mechanical printing globally. His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. Gutenberg’s books were not only intended to reduce the labor involved in producing literature, but were mean to be attractive as well The printing press spread quickly, reaching Venice by 1469 and England by 1476

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R & R: Literature: Francesco Guicciardini (1483-1540)

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“History of Italy”: In addition to Machiavelli’s Prince and Discourses, there were the works of Francesco Guicciardini, whose “History of Italy” was based on a critical use of sources, and Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), whose Lives of the Artists (1550) is an early history of art Italian historian and statesman. A friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli, he is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance. Guicciardini is considered as the Father of Modern History, due to his use of government documents to verify his "History of Italy."

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Music: Polyphony

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Northern Europeans also developed polyphony, or music consisting of several voices singing in harmony, from the 12th century to the early 15 century Until then music was predominantly monophonic, like Gregorian chant

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R & R: John Calvin: Hugenots

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Calvinism was centered primarily in Switzerland, but there were Calvinist minorities throughout Europe Those in France were called Huguenots Used originally as a term of derision, the derivation of the name Huguenot remains uncertain. Various theories have been promoted. * members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the 16th to the 18th century. * Criticisms of Roman Catholic Church * Calvin replaced the catholic hierarchy with a democratic system whereby each individual congregation elected its minister and governed its policies. argued that religion should be moral force of affairs of secular government Above all, Huguenots became known for their fiery criticisms of worship as performed in the Roman Catholic Church, in particular the focus on ritual and what seemed an obsession with death and the dead. They believed the ritual, images, saints, pilgrimages, prayers, and hierarchy of the Catholic Church did not help anyone toward redemption. They saw Christian faith as something to be expressed in a strict and godly life, in obedience to Biblical laws, out of gratitude for God's mercy. Like other Protestants of the time, they felt that the Roman church needed radical cleansing of its impurities, and that the Pope represented a worldly kingdom, which sat in mocking tyranny over the things of God, and was ultimately doomed. Rhetoric like this became fiercer as events unfolded, and stirred up the hostility of the Catholic establishment. Violently opposed to the Catholic Church, the Huguenots attacked images, monasticism, and church buildings. Most of the cities in which the Huguenots gained a hold saw iconoclast attacks, in which altars and images in churches, and sometimes the buildings themselves were torn down. The cities of Bourges, Montauban and Orleans saw substantial activity in this regard. * Reform and growth Huguenots faced periodic persecution from the outset of the Reformation; but Francis I (reigned 1515–1547) initially protected them from Parlementary measures designed for their extermination. The Affair of the Placards of 1534 changed the king's posture toward the Huguenots: he stepped away from restraining persecution of the movement. Huguenot numbers grew rapidly between 1555 and 1562, chiefly amongst the nobles and city-dwellers. During this time, their opponents first dubbed the Protestants Huguenots; but they called themselves reformés, or "Reformed." They organized their first national synod in 1558, in Paris. By 1562, the estimated number of Huguenots had passed one million, concentrated mainly in the southern and central parts of the country. The Huguenots in France likely peaked in number at approximately two million, compared to approximately sixteen million Catholics during the same period.

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R & R: New Monarchies: Francis I

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The French campaigns in Italy were ultimately disastrous Their claims entangled them with the Hapsburgs, and Francis I (1515-1547) fought four wars against Charles V, known as the Valois-Hapsburg Wars Francis was captured in 1525 and had to surrender his claims to Burgundy and Italy Although Francis and Charles signed the Treaty of Cambria (1529) to end hostilities, the wars soon resumed and Charles invaded southern France (1530-1538) In a desperate bid to save the country, Francis made an alliance with the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who relieved the pressure on France by striking at the Holy Roman Empire from the east and forcing Charles V to turn his attention to the defense of his own domains The alliance between Catholic France and Muslim Turkey was scandalous from a religious point of view, but reflected the secular pragmatism of the new style of European statecraft, which conformed to the Machiavellian model outlined in “The Prince”. The French reaped considerable benefits from their alliance with the Ottomans and were given control of the sacred sites in the Holy Land The struggle between the Valois and the Hapsburgs for control of Italy was ended in 1559 by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, which required France to admit defeat

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R & R: New Monarchies: France: Campaigns in Italy

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With France secure and administered by an effective bureaucracy, the Valois kings set out on ambitious campaigns to dominate their Italian neighbors, beginning with Charles VIII (1483-1498), who seized the Kingdom of Naples in 1495, and Louis XII (1498-1515), who seized Milan in 1499

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Humanism (Francesco Petrarch)

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Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) is known as the "Father of Renaissance Humanism". He advocated both imitating the Latin style of the ancients (above all Cicero) and the attitudes that the ancient authors expressed. Thus, Petrarch opposed the scholastic theologians and canon lawyers, and the intellectual culture of the universities in general, because he thought they marginalized the human experience by analyzing it in cold, abstract terms and without sensitivity to rhetorical sophistication He rebelled against medieval culture in general, calling it a “dark age” of barbarism, and thus introduced the historiographical tradition that divides Western civilization into ancient, medieval, and modern phases Petrarch was not opposed to Christianity, but wanted a more emotional, psychologically nuanced approach to religion. In his introspective work, “The Secret”, he converses with St. Augustine of Hippo, author of the soul-searching autobiography, “The Confessions” Although Petrarch’s most popular works were his vernacular sonnets of unrequited love for a woman named Laura, he hoped to acquire literary immortality for his Latin epic, the “Africa”, which depicts the Punic Wars Petrarch was elected poet laureate, by the Roman Senate in 1341 * Italian scholar, poet, and one of the earliest Renaissance humanists. Based on Petrarch's works, and to a lesser extent those of Dante Alighieri and Giovanni Boccaccio, Pietro Bembo in the 16th century created the model for the modern Italian language, later endorsed by the Accademia della Crusca. Petrarch is credited with developing the sonnet - his sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and became a model for lyrical poems. Also known for being one of the first people to call the Middle Ages the Dark Ages.

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Humanism

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The over-riding goal of humanists -- who valued reason and the evidence of the senses as ways of reaching the truth, over the Christian values of humility, introspection, and passivity or "meekness" which had dominated European thought in the previous centuries -- was to become eloquent in rhetoric. Renaissance humanists believed that the liberal arts (art, music, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of "richness". They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity. Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century. The humanist movement developed from the rediscovery by European scholars of many Latin and Greek texts. Initially, a humanist was simply a teacher of Latin literature. By the mid-15th century humanism described a curriculum — the studia humanitatis — comprising grammar, rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry and history as studied via classical authors. The early beliefs of humanism were that, although God created the universe, it was humans that developed and industrialized it. It was only later, in the 20th century, that humanism was interpreted as a new philosophical outlook -- one which encompassed human dignity and potential and the place of mankind in nature. Beauty, a popular topic, was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and an essential element in the path towards God. The humanists were opposed to the philosophers of the day, the "schoolmen," or scholastics, of the Italian universities and later Oxford and Paris. The scholastics' methodology was derived from Thomas Aquinas, and this opposition revived a classical debate which referred back to Plato and the Platonic dialogues. ************************************************************************************************************************** Renaissance humanism was a movement that affected the cultural, political, social, and literary landscape of Europe. Beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, Renaissance humanism revived the study of Latin and Greek, with the resultant revival of the study of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.(see Burckhard The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy) The revival was based on interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation on the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and meekness. Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and an essential element in the path towards God.[citation needed] Humanism's divergence from orthodox Christianity can be identified with the condemnation of Pelagianism by Jerome and Augustine. Like the Humanists, Pelagius perceived humans as possessing inherent capacity for developing the qualities that the church perceived as necessitating the gift of grace from God. Pelagius rejected the doctrine of original sin. The Humanists likewise recognize humans as born not with a burden of inherited sin due to their ancestry but with potential for both good and evil which will develop in this life as their characters are formed. The Humanists therefore reject Calvinistic predestination, and understandably therefore arouse the hostility of Protestant fundamentalists.[citation needed] Renaissance humanists believed that the liberal arts (music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of wealth. They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.[citation needed] Noteworthy humanist scholars from this period include the Dutch theologian Erasmus, the English author (and Roman Catholic saint) Thomas More, the French writer François Rabelais, the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch and the Italian scholar Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.[citation needed]

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Painting: Hans Holbein the Younger

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German artist and printmaker who worked in a Northern Renaissance style. He is best known for his numerous portraits and his woodcut series of the Dance of Death, and is widely considered one of the finest portraitists of the Early Modern Period. “Later northern artists were influenced by Italian art and excelled in realism, as seen in the portraits painted by two Germans – Albrecht Durer and HHTY

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Classical Scholarship

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In advocating a return to the classical literary tradition, Petrarch inspired a movement to recover works of the ancient authors from neglect in the monasteries and study them intensively. Boccaccio (1313-1375) was among the scholars whom Petrarch inspired to collect ancient manuscripts – the intensive study of Latin texts established the modern discipline of philology (historical linguistics). On the basis of Latin style, the humanist Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) was able to prove that the so-called Donation of Constantine was actually an eight-century forgery . Because of its hostility to university culture, humanism developed outside that tradition Humanists were often supported financially by wealthy patrons who appreciated their talent and wished to enhance their own prestige through their association with cultivated men of letters. They studied Greek in addition to Latin, and thus revived the ancient Roman tradition of the upper classes (who were fluent in Greek). Humanists founded secondary schools that stressed the study of the classics, bringing about a revolution in education that was to last until the early 20th century

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R & R: New Monarchies: Spain (Ferdinand and Isabella)

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By the 15th century, most of the Iberian peninsula had been won back from the Muslims. Long divided even among its Christian rulers, Spain began to coalesce into a strong centralized monarchy with the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (d 1516) and Isabella of Castile (d 1504) in 1469. They were able to dominate the cortes (parliamentary assemblies), reduce the power of the nobles, and streamline the bureaucracy. As both were devout Catholics, they received papal approval for the Spanish Inquisition in 1478, controlling it as an arm of the state in order to establish religious unity and to control dissidents. The first grand inquisitor was a Dominican friar, the dreaded Tomas de Torquemada (1420-1498). The Spanish Inquisition concentrated its attention at first on the Marranos (Jews who had converted to Christianity but were suspected of continuing to practice Judaism secretly) and later the Moriscos (Muslim converts). It later prevented Protestantism from establishing itself in Spain Among its positive effects was the reform of the Catholic Church in Spain, a task that was guided by Cardinal Ximenes In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella expelled the Jews from Spain and completed the Reconquista with the invasion of Granada

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R & R: Italian Politics: Invasions

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In 1494 the French king Charles VIII (1483-1498) lay claim to the throne of Naples and invaded Italy Although he seized the kingdom from its Spanish ruler, he was unable to hold it against the alliance of Italian states that banded together to drive him out. In 1499 Charles’ successor, Louis XII (1498-1515), invaded Italy to claim Milan. Again the French king was driven out by a temporary alliance. These invasions continued under Francis I (1515-1547) and were aggravated by counter-invasions led by the Spanish king and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles of the Hapsburg dynasty. With each invasion, Italy was progressively devastated, and in 1527 the Hapsburg forces sacked Rome out of frustration after they pay had been long delayed.

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Florence: The Medici

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Florentine politics in the 15th century was dominated by the wealthy Medici family, who arose in the 13th century as merchants and bankers Saluti and Bruni both served the city-state of Florence, which was the preeminent center of culture in Renaissance Italy. They were the effective rulers of Florence during the leadership of Cosimo (1389-1464) and Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492). In time their influence extended far beyond Florence Three members of the family became popes (Leo X, Clement VII, Leo XI) and two became queens of France (Catherine and Marie) Great patrons of the arts, funding the projects of artists like Botticelli and Michelangelo They also patronized humanist, such as Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), who translated the complete works of Plato from Greek into Latin for the first time. Ficino also translated the works of Neoplatonists such as Plotinus and wrote his own works of philosophy and theology Although the Medici suffered exile twice after Lorenzo died, they were able to return to power each time with help from Spain. * powerful and influential Florentine family from the 13th to 17th century. The family produced three popes (Leo X, Clement VII, and Leo XI), numerous rulers of Florence (notably Lorenzo the Magnificent, patron of some of the most famous works of Renaissance art), and later members of the French and English royalty. Like other Signore families they dominated their city's government. They were able to bring Florence under their family's power, allowing for an environment where art and humanism could flourish. They led the birth of the Italian Renaissance along with the other great signore families of Italy like the Visconti and Sforza families of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, the Gonzaga of Mantua, and others. The Medici Bank was one of the most prosperous and most respected in Europe. There are some estimates that[citation needed] the Medici family was, for a period of time, the wealthiest family in Europe. From this base, the family acquired political power initially in Florence, and later in wider Italy and Europe. A notable contribution to the profession of accounting was the improvement of the general ledger system through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. This system was first used by accountants working for the Medici family in Florence.

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R & R: Economic Innovations

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The artistic and scholarly endeavors of the Italian Renaissance would not have been possible without the wealth generated by new financial practices during the recovery from the Black Death These practices included: * Double-entry bookkeeping to record transactions accurately, bills of exchange (a prototype of the modern check) * Maritime insurance known as “sea loans” to minimize the effects of the loss of cargo * The use of branch offices to establish international financial empires Although the church still forbade usury, it allowed the exploitation of loopholes by which wealthy merchants could lend money in order to make profits from the charging of interest. The Medici were in fact bankers for the papacy. The Italians formed short-term partnerships known as commenda by which an investor would contribute capital while the recipient would conduct the actual commercial activity; this system allowed investors to diversify their commercial ventures to take advantage of changing circumstances in the market

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R & R: Italian Politics: Wars between the City-States

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The Italian city-states arose from the medieval communes (towns holding charters from a feudal lord) and became self-governing after their successful resistance against the Holy Roman Emperors Although many of the city-states were republics, they were often ruled by despots (either behind-the-scenes or overtly). Italian politics was chaotic and tumultuous as the city-states vied for supremacy within their own domains, which were usually driven by factionalism. Such an environment was ideal for condotttieri ( mercenary generals) like the successful Gatamelat and Bartolommeo Colleoni, both of whom were commemorated in equestrian statues modeled on the ancient effigy of Marcus Aurelias The most successful condottiere, however, was Francesco Sforza (1401-1466), who seized Milan in 1450 and established a dynasty there.

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Renaissance Men

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Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) mastered not only painting, sculpture, and architecture, but was also renowned as an engineer, inventor and musician. His most famous paintings are the Last Supper (c1495-1497) and the Mona Lisa (1503-1506), but he also designed cannons and canal-locks, and he had the imagination to theorize about flying machines centuries before the technology existed to make flight possible. Like Leonardo, Michelangelo (1475-1564) mastered painting, sculpture, and architecture; he also wrote poetry of a high quality Perhaps his most significant contribution to Western civilization was the sheer force of his personality, whereby he defined the artist as a tormented genius whose inspiration leads him to test his powers to the limits Da Vinci and Micheangelo are the most remarkable examples of “Renaissance men” – geniuses who mastered a broad range of talents in a display of individualistic virtuosity that defined Renaissance Humanism

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Painting

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Renaissance painting developed out of Giotto’s late medieval frescoes, which were marked by their naturalism, their humanistic focus, and the use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) to indicate a sense of depth. Masaccio (1401-1428) improved upon Giotto’s efforts by applying linear perspective for an accurate illusion of 3-dimensionality, whos rules were scientifically studied by Brunelleschi, and later formulated by Leon Battista Alberti in his highly influential treatise On Painting (1436) Preeminent among the later masters were Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci Renaissance painters often used their talents at naturalistic representation to include images of their patrons in a corner of their artwork, and portraiture became common

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Sculpture

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Italian sculpture, following classical models, revived the use of the nude figure and equestrian statues, both of which were pioneered by Donatello, whose bronze statue of “David” (c 1430-1435) marks the first nude, and whose bronze sculpture of the mercenary general “Gattamelata” (1447-1450) marks the first equestrian statue Statuary of the later Renaissance was dominated by Michelangelo Buonarroti, whose Pieta (1497-1500) powerfully elicits emotions of tenderness in its depiction of the Mother of Christ holding her dead son in her arms, and whose David (1501-1504) presents a monumental 17-foot-tall male nude with such realistic detail as the slight bulging of veins on the figure’s hands Michelangelo could not satisfy all the commissions that were requested of him He sculpted his David for Florence, but most of his work was commissioned by the papacy These masterpieces include the Pieta on display in the Vatican, the paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512), and the tomb of Pope Julius II, for which Michelangelo sculpted a statue of Moses with “horns of light” on his head to symbolize the wisdom he received from God (1515)

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R & R: Art and Architecture

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Despite this political chaos, Italian art and architecture flourished, reviving the classical ideals of harmony and proportion

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R & R: Italian Politics: Treaty of Lodi (Kingdom of Naples)

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A measure of order was achieved in 1454 by the Treaty of Lodi when there of the five major Italian – the northern city-states of Florence, Milan, and Venice – organized an alliance against the other two: the centrally located Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples in the south. The Papal States had nearly vanished during the Avignon papacy, when local rulers seized much of the territory After returning to Italy, the popes fought their neighbors to recover these domains The Kingdom of Naples, which include Sicily (and was sometimes called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) had changed hands many times during the Middle Ages – Byzantines, Muslims, Normans, Hohenstaufens, French, and Spanish rulers all claimed it at one time or another. In the 15th century it was ruled by the Spanish house of Aragon. * The Kingdom of Naples was an informal name of the polity officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily which existed on the mainland of the southern Italian peninsula after the secession of the island of Sicily from the old Kingdom of Sicily after the Sicilian Vespers rebellion of 1282. * Peace agreement between Milan and Venice signed on April 9, 1454 at Lodi in Lombardy, on the banks of the Adda Put an end to the long struggles between expansive Milan, under Filippo Maria Visconti, and Venice in the terraferma, which had produced a single decisive Venetian victory, at the battle of Maclodio in 1427, in which the Venetian ally was Florence, but had resulted in no lasting peace: see Wars in Lombardy. After a further generation of intermittent seasonal campaigning, the Treaty of Lodi established permanent boundaries between Milanese and Venetian territories in Northern Italy, along the river Adda. Francesco Sforza was confirmed as the rightful duke of Milan. A principle of a balance of power in Northern Italy was established, one that excluded ambitions of smaller states: the republic of Genoa, the house of Savoy, the Gonzaga and the Este.

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R & R: Literature

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"Oration on the Dignity of Man ": The classic statement of the confidence in human reason and ability that epitomized Renaissance Humanism was the (1486) by Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494). Pico was a student of Marsilio Ficino and later set out on an ambitious program to develop a universal theory of human knowledge which was to include a Jewish form of mysticism known as the Cabbala as well as magic, but he fell under the influence of Savonarola and abandoned this grand design. Historical literature began to be written in the vernacular In addition to Machiavelli’s Prince and Discourses, there were the works of Francesco Guicciardini (1483-1540), whose History of Italy was based on a critical use of sources, and Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), whose Lives of the Artists (1550) is an early history of art. "The Book of the Courtier" by Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) outlines the education and rules of etiquette which the well-rounded statesman should embody, and thus epitomizes the refined cultural ideals of Renaissance Humanism

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R & R: Italian Politics: Machiavelli

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The chaos into which Italy was plunged by waves of invasion led some statesmen to urge its political unification The most vocal of these was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), who wrote “The Prince” (1513) as an appeal to the Medici to provide a leader that all Italians could rally around. Machiavelli’s Prince depicts the ideal ruler as an unscrupulous despot who uses any means to attain his ends. It presents historical examples to support the contention that human beings are unreliable and that successful rulers must be flexible and ignore the teachings of Christianity that would limit their range of strategy. Machiavelli blamed the papacy for preventing the unification of Italy, and he blamed the use of mercenaries for its endemic chaos; he recommended and organized militias of citizen-soldiers, reasoning that the most reliable troops were those who were defending their homes and families rather than serving for pay. “The Prince” can be seen as a desperate appeal for drastic action to correct an intolerable situation, for Machiavelli’s historical study of ancient Rome, “The Discourses” (1531), identifies representative government as the ideal rather than despotism. Machievelli wrote both works in exile, after having served Florence as a diplomat, and he drew upon his experiences in politics as well as humanistic study of history for his arguments. * Italian diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet and playwright. Machiavelli was a figure of the Italian Renaissance, and a central figure of its political scene. In June of 1498, following the ouster and execution of Savonarola, the Great Council elected Machiavelli as the Secretary to the second Chancery of the Republic of Florence.[1] He is best known for his treatises on realist political theory (The Prince, which he considered his Magnum opus) on the one hand and republicanism (Discourses on Livy) on the other. These two written works, in addition to his History of Florence (which was commissioned by the Medici family), were published posthumously in 1531.[2] His philosophical views on politics were such that his surname has since passed into common dialect, referring to any political move that is devious or cunning in nature.

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R & R: John Calvin: John Knox

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* Scottish clergyman and leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination. He was educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. The Scottish reformer, (1513-1572), established Calvinism in Scotland, founding its Presbyterian Church Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent of Scotland, Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549. While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England, where he quickly rose in the ranks to serve the King of England, Edward VI, as a royal chaplain. In this position, he exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer. In England he met and married his first wife, Marjorie. When Mary Tudor ascended the throne and re-established Roman Catholicism, Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country. Knox first moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt. In Geneva, he met John Calvin, from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity. He created a new order of service, which was eventually adopted by the reformed church in Scotland. He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy, thus ending his association with the Church of England. On his return to Scotland, he led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility. The movement may be seen as a revolution, since it led to the ousting of the queen regent, Mary of Guise, who governed the country in the name of her young daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots. Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk. He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants throughout Mary's reign. In several interviews with the queen, Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices. Eventually, when she was imprisoned and James VI enthroned in her stead, he openly ridiculed her in sermons. He continued to preach until his final days.

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R & R: Diversification of Protestantism: John of Leiden

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(one Anabaptist leader) The call to individual conscience inspired many small sects which did not align themselves with either Luther or Zwingli but pursued their own interpretation of Scripture. Many of these groups required their converts to receive baptism a second time, and thus were called Anabaptists (and means “again” in Greek). The Anabaptists were despised by Catholics, Lutherans, and Zwinglians alike While many of the Anabaptists were peaceful, some of them had participated in the Peasant Revolt of 1525, and one group, led by John of Leiden, later seized the town of Munster, where in 1534 they established a theocracy (“New Zion”) which practiced polygamy (after the model of the Old Testament) and communal ownership of property (after the model of the New Testament, as found in the Acts of the Apostles). The city was soon recaptured and John of Leiden was executed in 1536.

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: New Religious Orders: Jesuits

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Roman Catholic Church religious order of clerks regular whose members are called Jesuits, Soldiers of Christ, and Foot soldiers of the Pope, because the founder, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was a knight before becoming a priest. Jesuits are the largest male religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, with 18,815 members — 13,305 priests, 2,295 scholastic students, 1,758 brothers and 827 novices — as of January 2008, although the Franciscan family of first orders OFMs, Capuchins, and Conventuals has more total members. The average age of the Jesuits in 2008 is 57.53: 63.01 for priests, 30.01 for scholastics, and 65.06 for Brothers[1]. Jesuit priests and brothers are engaged in ministries in 112 nations on six continents.They are best known in the fields of education (schools, colleges, universities, seminaries, theological faculties), intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. They are also known in missionary work and direct evangelization, social justice and human rights activities, interreligious dialogue, and other 'frontier' ministry. The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General, currently Adolfo Nicolás.[2][3] The headquarters of the Society, called General Curia, is in Rome. The history curia of St Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. On August 15, 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard of Basque origin, and six other students at the University of Paris (Francisco Xavier, Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, and Nicolás Bobadilla all from Spain, Peter Faber from Savoy in France, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal) met in Montmartre outside Paris, in the crypt of the Chapel of St Denis, Rue Yvonne le Tac. This group bound themselves by a vow of poverty and chastity, to "enter upon hospital and missionary work in Jerusalem, or to go without questioning wherever the pope might direct". They called themselves the Company of Jesus, because they felt they were placed together by Christ. The name had echoes of the military (as in an infantry "company"), as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The word "company" comes ultimately from Latin, cum + pane = "bread with," or a group that shares meals. These initial steps led to the founding of what would be called the Society of Jesus later in 1540. The term societas in Latin is derived from socius, a partner or comrade. Much is sometimes made of Ignatius' military background; in fact nowhere in the Constitutions of the order is the Society of Jesus compared to an army. In 1537, they travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests.

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R & R: Martin Luther: Theology

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As a young man, Luther was obsessed with sin and guilt and feared for his own salvation. He joined the Augustinian friars and practiced good works, but was unable to acquire inner peace until his reading of the letters of St. Paul led him to conclude that salvation is achieved only by the gift of God’s grace on those who make a sincere profession of faith. Thus, he rejected the efficacy of good works (as well as indulgences) and relied on justification by faith alone. Luther also rejected the exalted role of the priesthood and taught that the Church is a “priesthood of all believers” In rejecting the Mass (which could only be performed by a priest), Luther also rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, which he replaced with consubstantiation – the doctrine that although the bread and wine do not become the actual substance of Christ’s body and blood, he is present in them nonetheless. Rejecting celibacy as a morally superior way of life, Luther married a former nun, with whom he raised a family. Luther wrote numerous works, most notably “On Christian Liberty (1519), and the “Small Catechism (1529)”, which outlined the Lutheran creed. He also prepared the first German translation of the Bible.

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R & R: Martin Luther

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* German monk, theologian, university professor, Father of Protestantism, and church reformer whose ideas influenced the Protestant Reformation and changed the course of Western civilization. Luther's theology challenged the authority of the papacy by holding that the Bible is the only infallible source of religious authority and that all baptized Christians under Jesus are a universal priesthood. According to Luther, salvation is a free gift of God, received only by true repentance and faith in Jesus as the Messiah, a faith given by God and unmediated by the church. At the Diet of Worms assembly over freedom of conscience in 1521, Luther's confrontation with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his refusal to submit to the authority of the Emperor resulted in his being excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church and being declared an outlaw of the state as a consequence. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular of the people made the Scriptures more accessible to them, and had a tremendous political impact on the church and on German culture. It furthered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the translation of the English King James Bible. His hymns inspired the development of congregational singing within Christianity.[11] His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage within Protestantism. Much scholarly debate has concentrated on Luther's writings about the Jews. His statements that Jews' homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed were revived and used in propaganda by the Nazis in 1933-45. As a result of this and his revolutionary theological views, his legacy remains controversial * Many shared Luther’s objections, and soon a movement began that transformed an invitation for theological debate into a schism that altered the character of Western Christianity Luther was ex-communicated for his continuing opposition in 1521. He refused to recant at the Diet of Worms, responding, “Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.” Citing Scripture and individual conscience as the only sources of religious authority, he denied the right of the papacy or council to govern the church. Luther might have been burned at Worms as a heretic, but was instead protected by a sympathetic secular prince, Frederick, the Elector of Saxony Soon other German princes in the northern part of the Empire side with Luther as he appealed to their nationalistic pride against sending money to Italy to fund the artistic projects of corrupt popes. Since the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, was preoccupied with wars against the French and the Turks, he was unable to intervene militarily Luther and the German reformers used the new technology of the printing press to disseminate their message quickly

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Renaissance Men: Leonardo Da Vinci

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Mona Lisa, Last Supper, Vitruvian Man As an engineer, Leonardo's ideas were vastly ahead of his time. Conceptualized a helicopter, a tank, concentrated solar power, a calculator, the double hull and outlined a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics. As a scientist, he greatly advanced the state of knowledge in the fields of anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics. * Italian polymath, having been a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician and writer. Born as the illegitimate son of a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant girl, Caterina, at Vinci in the region of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter, Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, spending his final years in France at the home given to him by King François I. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the "Renaissance man", a man whose seemingly infinite curiosity was equalled only by his powers of invention. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived. It is primarily as a painter that Leonardo was and is renowned. Two of his works, the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper occupy unique positions as the most famous, most reproduced and most parodied portrait and religious painting of all time, their fame approached only by Michelangelo's Creation of Adam.[1] Leonardo's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also iconic. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings survive, the small number due to his constant, and frequently disastrous, experimentation with new techniques, and his chronic procrastination.[nb 2] Nevertheless, these few works together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientific diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting, comprise a contribution to later generations of artists only rivalled by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Painting: Masaccio

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(improved upon Giotto’s efforts by applying linear perspective for an accurate illusion of three-dimensionality, whose rules were scientifically studied by Brunelleschi, and later formulated by Leon Battista Alberti in his highly influential treatise “On Painting”.) * First great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. His frescoes are the earliest monuments of Humanism, and introduce plasticity previously unseen in figure painting. The name Masaccio is a humorous version of Tommaso, meaning "big", "fat", "clumsy" or "messy" Tom. The name was created to distinguish him from his principal collaborator, also called Tommaso, who came to be known as Masolino ("little/delicate Tom"). Despite his brief career, he had a profound influence on other artists. He was one of the first to use scientific perspective in his painting, employing techniques such as vanishing point in art for the first time. He also moved away from the Gothic style and elaborate ornamentation of artists like Gentile da Fabriano to a more natural mode that employed perspective for greater realism.

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Printing: Aldus Manutius

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Prominent Venetian printer (1450-1515) Italics: Replaced the Gothic-style black-letter casts in Gutenberg with more elegant letter-forms known as italics * Italian printer, founder of the Aldine Press. (the printing office started by Aldus Manutius in 1494 in Venice, from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time. Italics, Octavo: The Aldine Press is famous in the history of typography, among other things, for the introduction of italics. The press was the first to issue printed books in the small octavo size, similar to that of a modern paperback, and like that intended for portability and ease of reading.)

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R & R

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The Renaissance, or “rebirth,” was a general revival of European society marking the transition form the medieval to the modern age. In its most specific sense, it was the revival of classical culture advocated by Petrarch, especially with regard to literary production. This classical revival soon spread to architecture and sculpture; classicism also influenced painting in terms of subject matter, but in terms of technique, Renaissance painting was a new departure rather than a return to an earlier model. In its broadest sense, the Renaissance was a time of recovery from the effects of the Black Death that led to new developments in various aspects of culture. Although humanists expressed a new confidence in the ability of human beings to endure in the fate of adversity and establish a flourishing culture, the humanism of the age was not a complete break with the medieval tradition, for Christianity still remained the focal point of European civilization and the most important factor in most people’s lives. Especially north of the Alps, humanists combined the new interest in pagan Greece and Rome with desire to refine Christian practice, resulting in a vibrant new Christian humanism that set the foundations for the Reformation

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Michelangelo Buonarroti

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* Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, poet and engineer. Despite making few forays beyond the arts, his versatility in the disciplines he took up was of such a high order that he is often considered a contender for the title of the archetypal Renaissance man, along with his rival and fellow Italian Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo's output in every field during his long life was prodigious; when the sheer volume of correspondence, sketches and reminiscences that survive is also taken into account, he is the best-documented artist of the 16th century. Two of his best-known works, the Pietà and the David, were sculpted before he turned thirty. Despite his low opinion of painting, Michelangelo also created two of the most influential works in fresco in the history of Western art: the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling and The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Later in life he designed the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in the same city and revolutionised classical architecture with his use of the giant order of pilasters. * Statue of David * Sistine Chapel ceiling * Pieta. 1499. Marble. St. Peter's, Vatican

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R & R: New Monarchies: Ottoman Turkish Empire

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A cataclysmic event that altered the character of the European political configuration by reviving a powerful Muslim presence in Europe was the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. ! Turkish dynasty established around 1300 in western Anatolia. For a time the Ottomans served as mercenaries to the Byzantines, but by about 1350 they established a base in the Balkans and set about expanding their domains. ! Mehmet: European crusades against them in the early 1400s were ineffective, and the capture of Constantinople by Mehmet (Muhammad) II the Conqueror (1451-1481) firmly established their control over the southeastern corner of Europe. ! Suleiman the Magnificent: The greatest of the Ottoman rulers was Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), whose forces captured Serbia and later Hungary (Battle of Mohacs, 1526). In 1529 the Ottomans lay siege to Vienna – Although they never took the city, they were a constant threat to central Europe well into modern times * At the height of its power (16th–17th century), it spanned three continents, controlling much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. It stretched from the Strait of Gibraltar, (except during 1553, when it reached from the Atlantic coast of Morocco beyond Gibraltar) in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, and from the edge of Austria, Hungary and parts of Ukraine in the north to Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia and Yemen in the south. The Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia. The empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. With Constantinople (Istanbul) as its capital city, and vast control of lands during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent which lands largely corresponded to the lands ruled by Justinian the Great exactly 1000 years earlier, the Ottoman Empire was an Islamic successor to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of this previous empire (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottomans, who elaborated them into new forms. These cultural traits were later blended with the characteristics of the ethnic and religious groups living within the Ottoman territories, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity.

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R & R: Martin Luther: Theology: “On Christian Liberty”

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Written in a simple style, "Christian Liberty" conveys significant spiritual insight into the grace of God and liberating faith in Christ Jesus.

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R & R: Naturalism

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Naturalism began in the early Renaissance, and developed itself further throughout the Renaissance, such as with the Florentine School. Naturalism is a type of art that pays attention to very accurate and precise details, and portrays things as they are. All art is conventional, but artists following the tendency "naturalism" profess a belief in the importance of producing works that mimic the visible world as closely as possible.

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R & R: The Northern Renaissance: (Metal) Movable Type

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~ 1450 Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz (Germany) is acknowledged as the first to invent a metal movable type printing system in Europe. Was a goldsmith familiar with techniques of cutting punches for making coins from moulds. ! Hand Mould: Between 1436 and 1450 he developed hardware and techniques for casting letters from matrices using a device called the hand mould.[21] Gutenberg's key invention and contribution to movable type printing in Europe, the hand mould was the first practical means of making cheap copies of letterpunches in the vast quantities needed to print complete books, making the movable type printing process a viable enterprise. Johannes Gutenberg’s development, in mid fifteenth-century Mainz, of printing with movable metal type was enormously consequential—it made texts available to an increasing percentage of the population and helped to spark the European Renaissance. (Probably influenced by Asia)

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R & R: New Monarchies: Spain: Moriscos

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Any Muslim of Spain or Portugal who converted to Catholicism during the reconquista of Spain. The term also became a pejorative regarding those who had converted, but were suspected of secretly practicing Islam. Converted Jews, or conversos, who secretly held to Judaism were called marranos.

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R & R: Arts and Architecture: Economic Innovations: Money Lending

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"The artistic and scholarly endeavors of the Italian Renaissance would not have been possible without the wealth generated by new financial practices during the recovery from the Black Death The practices include: •

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Religious Fervor: Modern Devotion

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Beginning in the 14th century, a religious movement developed among the laity in northern Europe that sought to bring the experience of God into daily life The movement was inspired by the preaching of the German mystic, Meister Eckhart (1260-1327) and became known as the Modern Devotion, preached by a Dutch layman, Gerard Groote (1349 – 1384), whose followers founded the Brethren of the Common Life Their ideals are expressed in “The Imitation of Christ” by Thomas a Kempis (c 1380 – 1471) Many of them were also inspired by the revival of classicism that spread from Italy; in their schools they taught Latin and Greek * religious movement of the Late Middle Ages. Came into advocation at the same time as Christian Humanism, a meshing of Humanism and Christianity. Christian Humanism advocated studying the fundamental texts of Christianity to come to one's own relationship with God. The 15th century laity were able to study the scriptures by the advent of the printing press. With the ideals of Christian Humanism, Devotio Moderna recommended a more individual attitude towards belief and religion and was especially prominent in cities in the Low Countries during the 14th and 15th centuries. It is regarded sometimes as a contributing factor for Lutheranism and Calvinism. It was also a major influence upon Erasmus, who was brought up in this tradition. The origins of the movement are bound up with the career of Geert Groote of Deventer (Netherlands). From his work two kinds of communities formed, the Brethren of the Common Life, consisting mainly of laymen, as well as monasteries in the area of Windesheim near Zwolle. The book The Imitation of Christ, written by Thomas a Kempis, a Brother of the Common Life, outlines the concepts of Modern Devotion, based on personal connection to God and the active showing of love towards Him (e.g., in the blessed sacrament of the altar or during mass).

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R & R: Origin of the Term “Protestants”

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! I 1526: the princes of the Empire met at the Diet of Speyer (, Germany) and established a compromise which allowed Lutheran princes freedom to worship as they chose II 1529: When a second Diet of Speyer repealed this agreement, the Lutheran princes rose in protest and thus became known as “Protestants”

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R & R: Martin Luther: Ninety-Five Theses

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! Written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. ! Luther used these theses to display his displeasure with the Church's sale of indulgences, and this ultimately gave birth to Protestantism Luther's popularity encouraged others to share their doubts about the Church and to protest against its medieval ways; it especially challenged the teachings of the Church on the nature of penance, the authority of the pope and the usefulness of indulgences. They sparked a theological debate that would result in the Reformation and the birth of the Lutheran, Reformed, and Anabaptist traditions within Christianity.

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R & R: Diversification of Protestantism: Anabaptists

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! Christians of the Radical Reformation. Various groups at various times have been called Anabaptist, but the term is most commonly used to refer to the Anabaptists of 16th century Europe. Today the descendants of the 16th century European movement (particularly the Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites, Church of the Brethren, Brethren in Christ, and other respective German Baptist variants) are the most common bodies referred to as Anabaptist. ! Believer's baptism is one of the defining characteristics of Anabaptist beliefs, but was considered heresy by the other major religious groups of the reformation period. As a result, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th * ! The call to individual conscience inspired many small sects which did not align themselves with either Luther or Zwingli but pursued their own interpretation of Scripture. Many of these groups required their converts to receive baptism a second time, and thus were called Anabaptists (ana mean “again” in Greek). The Anabaptists were despised by Catholics, Lutherans and Zwinglians alike. While many of the Anabaptists were peaceful, some of them had participated in the Peasant Revolt of 1525, and one group, led by John of Leiden, later seized the town of Munster, where in 1534 they established a theocracy (“New Zion”) which practiced polygamy (after the model of the Old Testament) and communal ownership of property (after the model of the New Testament, as found in the Acts of the Apostles). The city was soon recaptured and John of Leiden was executed in 1536)

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R & R: Diversification of Protestantism: Zwingli

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! Leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. ! Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus. ! He and Luther met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist.* ! Zwingli disagreed with Luther over the Eucharist – Rejecting Luther’s doctrine of consubstantiation, he believe that the ritual of the Lord’s Supper was merely commemorative or symbolic and did not imply the special presence of divinity. The two men met in 1529, but were unable to resolve their differences. The Mass was simplified and the doctrine of transubstantiation was rejected. Serving as chaplain for the Protestant forces, Zwingli was killed in the Battle of Kappel (1531)

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R & R: Italian Politics: Machiavelli: The Prince

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! Machiavelli’s Prince depicts the ideal ruler as an unscrupulous despot who uses any means to attain his ends. ! It presents historical examples to support the contention that human beings are unreliable and that successful rulers must be flexible and ignore the teachings of Christianity that would limit their range of strategy. ! “The Prince” can be seen as a desperate appeal for drastic action to correct an intolerable situation, for Machiavelli’s historical study of ancient Rome, “The Discourses” (1531), identifies representative government as the ideal rather than despotism.

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R & R: John Calvin: Predestination

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! To emphasize that neither good works nor faith but only the power of God alone can guarantee salvation, Calvin taught the doctrine of double predestination – that God has determined in advance not only that some will be saved, but also that others will be damned ! Those who believe in predestination, such as John Calvin, believe that before the creation God determined the fate of the universe throughout all of time and space.

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Pieter Bruegel the Elder

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! Netherlandish Renaissance painter and printmaker known for his landscapes and lively and intricate peasant scenes (Genre Painting). He is nicknamed 'Peasant Bruegel' to distinguish him from other members of the Brueghel dynasty, but is also the one generally meant when the context does not make clear which "Bruegel" is being referred to. From 1559 he dropped the 'h' from his name and started signing his paintings as Bruegel.

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R & R: Literature: Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494)

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! “Oration on the Dignity of Man” (1846): classic statement of the confidence in human reason and ability that epitomized Renaissance Humanism was the Oration on the Dignity of Man - has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance" ! Pico justified the importance of the human quest for knowledge within a neo-Platonic framework. ! He writes that after God had created all creatures, he conceived of the desire for another, sentient being who would appreciate all his works, but there was no longer any room in the chain of being; all the possible slots from angels to worms had been filled. ! So, God created man such that he had no specific slot in the chain. Instead, men were capable of learning from and imitating any existing creature. ! When man philosophizes, he ascends the chain of being towards the angels, and communion with God. When he fails to exercise his intellect, he vegetates. ! The idea that men could ascend the chain of being through the exercise of their intellectual capacities was a profound endorsement of the dignity of human existence in this earthly life. The root of this dignity lay in his assertion that only human beings could change themselves through their own free will, whereas all other changes in nature were the result of some outside force acting on whatever it is that undergoes change. Pico did not fail to notice that this system made philosophers like himself among the most dignified human creatures. He observed from history that philosophies and institutions were always in change, making man's capacity for self-transformation the only constant. Coupled with his belief that all of creation constitutes a symbolic reflection of the divinity of God, Pico's philosophies had a profound influence on the arts, helping to elevate writers and painters from their medieval role as mere artisans to the Renaissance ideal of the artist as genius.

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R & R: Protestant Reformation: Religious Fighting: Peace of Augsburg

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* The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty signed between Ferdinand I, (who replaced his brother Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor), and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the city of Augsburg in Bavaria, Germany. * Officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire. * Families were given a period in which they were free to migrate to different regions of their desired religion. In respect of the famous quote "Cuius regio, eius religio", derived from the document allowed German princes to select either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states.

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R & R: Protestant Reformation: Sale of Indulgences

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! The extravagant spending of the Renaissance popes on military forces, patronage of the arts and grandiose building programs led them to seek money by dubious means ! Hoping to raise money for the building of St. Peter’s Basilica, Leo X authorized a Dominican preacher, Johann Tetzel, to sell indulgences on a tour in Germany. ! Indulgences were pardons for sin, granted by the papacy, which were belived to shorten the time a person had to spend in Purgatory ! When a theologian at the University of Wittenberg named Martin Luther (1483-1546) learned of Tetzel’s mission, he responded by publishing in 1517 a collection of propositions opposing the sale of indulgences know as the “Ninety-Five theses.” ! The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Luther used these theses to display his displeasure with the Church's sale of indulgences, and this ultimately gave birth to Protestantism.

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R & R: Renaissance Man

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Da Vinci and Michelangelo are the most remarkable examples of “Renaissance men” – geniuses who mastered a broad range of talents in a display of individualistic virtuosity that defined Renaissance Humanism * Polymath: It essentially means that the person's knowledge is not restricted to one subject area.

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R & R: Christian Humanism

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! It is a philosophical union of Christian and humanist principles ! The belief that human freedom and individualism are intrinsic (natural) parts of, or are at least compatible with, Christian doctrine and practice. Christian humanism finally blossomed out of the Renaissance and was brought by devoted Christians to the study of the philological sources of the Greek New Testament and Hebrew Bible. The confluence of moveable type, new inks and widespread paper-making put potentially the whole of human knowledge at the hands of the scholarly community in a new way, beginning with the publication of critical editions of the Bible and Church Fathers and later encompassing other disciplines John Calvin was the most prominent of the many figures associated with Reformed Churches that proliferated in Switzerland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and portions of Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, and Poland. Each of the candidates for ordained ministry in these churches had to study the Christian Old Testament in Hebrew and the New in Greek in order to qualify. This continued the tradition of Christian humanism.

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R & R: Art and Architecture: Painting: Raphael (Sanzio)

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* ! Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance, celebrated for the perfection and grace of his paintings and drawings. ! Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period ! enormously productive and, despite his early death at thirty-seven, a large body of his work remains, especially in the Vatican. ! extremely influential in his lifetime, but after his death the influence of his great rival Michelangelo was more widespread until the 18th and 19th centuries, when his more serene and harmonious qualities were again regarded as the highest models. ! It is said of Raphael that whatever he saw, he took possession of, and always growing by what was taught to him. His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described by Giorgio Vasari: * early years in Umbria * period of about four years (from 1504-1508) absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence * last hectic and triumphant twelve years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates.

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R & R: Spain: Spanish Inquisition

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! Independent of the medieval Inquisition. ! Purpose was to discover and punish converted Jews (and later Muslims) who were insincere. ! Was established (1478) by Ferdinand and Isabella with the reluctant approval of Sixtus IV. One of the first and most notorious heads was Tomas de Torquemada. Finally abolished in 1834. It was entirely controlled by the Spanish kings, and the pope's only hold over it was in naming the inquisitor general. The popes were never reconciled to the institution, which they regarded as usurping a church prerogative. However, soon no Spaniard could feel safe from it; thus, St. Ignatius of Loyola and St. Theresa were investigated for heresy. The censorship policy even condemned books approved by the Holy See. The Spanish Inquisition was much harsher, more highly organized, and far freer with the death penalty than the medieval Inquisition; its autos-da-fe became notorious. The Spanish government tried to establish the Inquisition in all its dominions; but in the Spanish Netherlands the local officials did not cooperate, and the inquisitors were chased (1510) out of Naples, apparently with the pope's connivance. Started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the medieval inquisition which was under papal control. The new body was under the direct control of the Spanish monarchy. It was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabel II. As an ecclesiastical tribunal, had jurisdiction only over baptized Christians. Worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts.

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R & R: New Monarchies: Charles I, King of Spain (Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire)

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* As the first monarch to reign in his own right over both the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon (from 1555) he is often considered as the first King of Spain. * ! Much of Charles's reign was taken up by conflicts with France, which found itself encircled by Charles's empire and still maintained ambitions in Italy ! Charles fought continually with the Ottoman Empire and its sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. ! As Holy Roman Emperor, he called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. He initially dismissed Luther's idea of reformation as "An argument between monks". He later outlawed Luther and his followers in that same year but was tied up with other concerns and unable to take action against Protestantism. ! 1524 to 1526 saw the Peasants' Revolt in Germany and in 1531 the formation of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League. Charles delegated increasing responsibility for Germany to his brother Ferdinand while he concentrated on problems elsewhere. ! In 1545, the opening of the Council of Trent began the Counter-Reformation, and Charles won to the Catholic cause some of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1546, he had the outlawed the Schmalkaldic League (which had occupied the territory of another prince). In 1516, the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon passed to Ferdinand’s grandson, who is known as Charles I (1516-1556) of Spain; later elected Holy Roman Emperor, he is also known as Charles V (1519-1558) In these two roles Charles inherited a collection of far-flung lands whose total expanse surpassed that of Charlemagne. In included the Netherlands, Sicily, and Southern Italy. Although Charles was the first king of a unified Spain, he spent little time there – his early rule set off a revolt, but it was brought under control in 1521 and thereafter Charles made compromises that maintained peace in the realm. Charles relied on Spanish soldiers for his wars against the French, the Ottomans, the Protestants, and the Italians. At last weary of the endless wars, Charles divide his empire, giving Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Phillip II (1556-1598), and arranging for his brother, Ferdinand I (1558-1564) to receive the imperial title. Charles then retired to a monastery in Spain, where he soon died

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R & R: Martin Luther: Small Catechism

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Written by Martin Luther and published in 1529 for the training of children Reviews The Ten Commandments, The Apostles' Creed, The Lord's Prayer, Holy Baptism, The Office of the Keys, and The Sacrament of the Altar. Included in the Lutheran Book of Concord as an authoritative statement of what Lutherans believe.

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R & R: Italian Politics: Wars between the City-States: Francesco Sforza

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! Most successful condottiere was Francesco Sforza (1401-1466), who seized Milan in 1450 and established a dynasty there. ! Italian condottiero, the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan,Italy. He was the brother of Alessandro, with whom he often fought. ! Francesco Sforza is mentioned several times in Niccolò Machiavelli's book The Prince; he is generally praised in that work for his ability to hold his country and as a warning to a prince not to use mercenary troops. ! He was a moderate patron of the arts. The main humanist of his court was the writer Francesco Filelfo.

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R & R: Italian Politics: Wars between the City-States: Condottieri

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! Condottieri: mercenary leaders employed by Italian city-states from the late Middle Ages until the mid-sixteenth century. Means "contractor" in renaissance Italian, is used as a synonym of "Mercenary Captain" in English historical writings, and connotes nothing about the nationality of the person given the label.

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R & R: Diversification of Protestantism: Calvin: Michael Servetus

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Spanish (Aragonese) theologian, physician, and humanist and the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation. His interests included many sciences: astronomy and meteorology; geography, jurisprudence, study of the Bible, mathematics, anatomy, and medicine. Renowned in the history of several of these fields, particularly medicine and theology. Rarticipated in the Protestant Reformation, and later developed a nontrinitarian Christology. Condemned by Catholics and Protestants alike, he was burnt at the stake by order of the Protestant Geneva governing council as a heretic. – Calvin supported the execution

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R & R: Protestant Reformation: Religioun Fighting: Schmalkaldic League

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* Defensive alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire during the mid-16th century. * formed by newly protestant princes to defend themselves against the emperor, charles V. Charles V wanted to call a church coincil that could compromise with the luterans and regain their allegiance to the roman catholic church, the pope said no * Although originally started for religious motives soon after the start of the Protestant Reformation, its members eventually intended for the League to replace the Holy Roman Empire as their source of political allegiance.[1] While it was not the first alliance of its kind, unlike previous formations, such as the League of Torgau, the Schmalkaldic League had a substantial military to defend its political and religious interests. It receives its name from the town of Schmalkalden, in the German province of Thuringia. ** See “Diet of Speyer”

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R & R: Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism: Salutati

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! Italian man of letters and one of the most important political and cultural leaders of Renaissance Florence. ! The most important achievement of his time in office was saving Florence from the ambitions of Giangaleazzo Visconti of Milan. (Petrarch thus advocated the contemplative life over the active life – many of the humanists he inspired, however, did not share this attitude. Men like Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) and Leonardo Bruni (1369-1444) advocated “civic humanism”, which maintained that the most virtuous kind of life was one that used humanistic study for public service) Coluccio's cultural achievements are perhaps even greater than his political ones. A skilled writer and orator, Coluccio drew heavily upon the classical tradition. He spent much of his salary on amassing a collection of 800 books, a large library by the standards of the time. He also pursued classical manuscripts, making a number of important discoveries, the most important being the lost letters of Cicero, which overturned the entire medieval conception of the Roman statesman. Coluccio also did important studies of history, tying Florence's origin not to the Roman Empire but to the Roman Republic. In his lifetime, the study of secular literature, especially pagan literature, was discouraged by the Roman Catholic Church. Coluccio played an important part in changing this outlook, frequently engaging in theological debates on the merits of pagan literature with Church officials.

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R & R: Christian Humanism: Religious Fervor: Thomas a Kempis

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! late Medieval Catholic monk and author of The Imitation of Christ, one of the best known Christian books on devotion. TIOC: widely read Christian spiritual book. It was first published anonymously, in Latin, ca. 1418; several other authors have been proposed, but Kempis' authorship is now generally accepted. Imitation of Christ is a writing of the mysticist German-Dutch school of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is widely considered one of the greatest manuals of devotion in Christianity. Protestants and Roman Catholics alike join in giving it praise. The Jesuits give it an official place among their "exercises". John Wesley and John Newton listed it among the works that influenced them at their conversion. General Gordon carried it with him to the battlefield. It is said Pope John Paul I was reading a copy when he died.

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: New Religious Orders: Theatines

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! male religious order of the Catholic Church, with the post-nominal initials "C.R." (Other new religious orders which served Catholicism in various ways included the Theatines, Ursulines, and Capuchins (a revival of the Franciscasns)) ! Notwithstanding their severe rule of life and strict vow of poverty, the congregation rapidly developed, and soon numbered among its members illustrious names of the Italian aristocracy. ! Founded many beautiful churches, among them that of Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome, a gift of Costanza Piccolomini D'Aragona, Duchess of Amalfi. This church is a masterpiece of Carlo Maderno, and contains several paintings by Domenichino. The Theatines were invited to all of the major cities of Italy by the authorities of these places. ! Also attained a great development in foreign countries. In France, through the efforts of Cardinal Mazarin, they built the Church of St. Anne la Royale opposite the Louvre in 1644. In Spain, under Philip II, the Theatine Cardinal Paolo Burali d'Arezzo, afterwards beatified, filled various embassies at the command of the viceroy of Naples. In Portugal, John IV, in 1648, gave the Theatines a splendid house and college for the education of noble youth. In England, under Henry VIII, Thomas Goldwell, Bishop of St. Asaph, entered the order of Theatines. In Bavaria, the Theatine Church St. Kajetan was built from 1663 to 1690, founded by Elector Ferdinand Maria Sant'Andrea della Valle, theatine church in Rome. The Theatines were the first to found papal missions in foreign lands, as in: Golconda (in present-day India); Ava (Burma); Peru; Mingrelia (Georgia); the East Indies, the history of which was written by the Theatine Bartolomeo Ferro (Missioni Teatine nelle Indie Orientali); Arabia; Armenia, in which latter country Father Galano, author of the history of the Armenian Church, negotiated and concluded the reconciliation and union of that Church with the Roman Catholic; Persia and in many other places, as is shown by Theatine manuscripts dating from 1530 until the end of the 18th century. ! In the 19th century the order began to decline, and in 1860, through the well-known suppression of religious orders, it was reduced to a shadow of its former greatness. In accordance with the spirit of its rule, it had never acquired possessions and is the only order which feels the consequences of the law of suppression.

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R & R: Protestant Reformation: Johann Tetzel

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! German Dominican preacher remembered for selling indulgences and for speaking the couplet "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings / the soul from purgatory springs.” ! Hoping to raise money for the building of St. Peter’s Basilica, Leo X authorized a Dominican preacher, Johann Tetzel, to sell indulgences on a tour in Germany. ! On his deathbed, Tetzel received a kind correspondence from Martin Luther, stating that he was not to blame for the whole ordeal, and offering his consolations. Tetzel even went as far as creating a chart that listed a price for each type of sin and claiming that the indulgences he sold could save a soul who violated the Virgin Mary. In 1517, Tetzel was trying to raise money for the ongoing construction of St. Peter's Basilica and it is believed that Martin Luther was inspired to write his Ninety-Five Theses, in part, due to Tetzel's actions during this period of time. At first, like most high clergymen, he thought Luther would soon regret his words. He is believed to have said once he read Luther's 95 Theses, "Within three weeks I will have thrown that heretic into the fire." He was soon proved wrong. He was also condemned (though later pardoned) for immorality.

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R & R: The New Monarchies: Henry the VIII: Cardinal Wolsey

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! English statesman and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. ! When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, Wolsey became the King's almoner. ! Wolsey's affairs prospered and by 1514 he had become the controlling figure in all matters of state and extremely powerful within the Church. ! The highest political position he attained was Lord Chancellor, the King's chief advisor, enjoying great freedom and often depicted as an alter rex (other king). ! Within the Church he became archbishop of York, the second most important see in England, and then was made a cardinal in 1515, giving him precedence over even the Archbishop of Canterbury. His main legacy is from his interest in architecture, in particular his old home of Hampton Court Palace, which stands today.

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R & R: Northern Renaissance: Rogier van der Weyden

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(1400-1464) ! Considered one of the greatest exponents of the school of Early Netherlandish painting. ! After he settled in Brussels Rogier began a prosperous career that would make him the most famous painter in Europe at the time he died in 1464. ! Not a single work that can be attributed with certainty (on the basis of documentary evidence) to Rogier van der Weyden survives. Rogier's most famous paintings were the four vast panels with the 'Justice of Trajan' and the 'Justice of Herkenbald', painted for the 'Gulden Camere' (Golden Chamber) of the Brussels Town Hall. (Early Flemish masters, such as Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, shared with their Italian contemporaries a keen interest in naturalism, often expressed in minute detail (as seen in the folds of drapery, textures of surfaces and background landscapes), but they lacked a fully developed linear perspective.

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R & R: Literature: Giorgio Vasari

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“Lives of the Artists” “Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects”, or Le Vite delle più eccellenti pittori, scultori, ed architettori as it was originally known in Italian: series of artist biographies written by 16th century Italian painter and architect Giorgio Vasari, which is considered "perhaps the most famous, and even today the most- read work of the older literature of art", "some of the Italian Renaissance's most influential writing on art", and "one of the founding texts in art history". The title is often abridged to the Vite or the Lives. (In addition to Machiavelli’s Prince and Discourses, there were the works of Francesco Guicciardini (1483-1540), whose History of Italy was based on a critical use of sources, and Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), whose Lives of the Artists (1550) is an early history of art.)

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R & R: Catholic Reformation: New Religious Orders: Ursulines

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The Ursulines are a Roman Catholic religious order founded at Brescia, Italy by Saint Angela de Merici in November, 1535, ! primarily for the education of girls and the care of the sick and needy. ! Patron saint is Saint Ursula.