Western Civilization: Greece

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Aeschylus

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"The plays of Aeschylus (525-456 bce) are profoundly moral and religous, focusing on the vice of hubris, or overweening pride, by which headstrong individuals call down nemesis, or divine punishment, upon themselves. He portrayed this theme in the "The Persians", "Prometheus Bound", and the "Oresteia" trilogy * Often recognized as the father or the founder of tragedy,[1][2] and is the earliest of the three Greek tragedians whose plays survive, the others being Sophocles and Euripides. * Expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict among them; previously, characters interacted only with the chorus. * Earliest of the 3 dramatists, won 1st first prize in the Great Dionysia 13 times * composed about 90 plays, but only seven are extant Oresteia: his masterpiece, is the only trilogy that has survived and even here the satyr-play is missing No more than seven of the estimated seventy plays written by Aeschylus have survived into modern times. Many of Aeschylus' works were influenced by the Persian invasion of Greece, which took place during his lifetime. His play The Persians remains a quintessential primary source of information about this period in Greek history. The war was so important to Greeks and to Aeschylus himself that, upon his death around 456 BC, his epitaph included a reference to his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon but not to his success as a playwright. In the Oresteia, Aeschylus confronts and resolves the opposition between several seemingly irreconcilable polarities – Olympian and chthonian gods, divin and human justice, religious cult and civic ritual, and fate and free will

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Ancient Greece: Alcibiades

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War ( 431-401 bce): Athenian Defats Without Pericles to guide the Athenians, they vacillated between one strategy and another, depending on the ability of rival politicians to sway the people’s vote. The most notorious of the Athenian leaders was Alcibiades (450-404 bce), Pericles’ nephew, who in 415 bce convinced the Athenians to invade Syracuse (in Sicily), an ally of the Spartans. The invasion failed, in part because Alcibiades ended up colluding with the Spartans in order to escape a plot hatched by his political rivals. Athens never recoverd from its defeat at Syracuse in 413 bec. When the subject city-states that made up the Athenian empire learned of the disaster, many of them rebelled. A short-lived oligarchy took control of Athens in 411 bce during the upheaval. Although democracy was soon restored, the humbled Athenian fleet could no longer effectively prosecute the war, for the Spartans now had an effective fleet of their own, paid for by the Persians, who took advantage of the war in Greece to play their former enemies against one another. Finally, in 404 bce, the Athenians surrendered. The terms of peace required them to tear down their city’s defensive walls and forbade them from building a fleet or attempting to revive their empire. An oligarchy known as the Thirty Tyrants, friendly to Sparta, took control of the city. With the defeat of Athens, the Classical culture of the Greeks declined. Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (IPA: /ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz/, Greek: Ἀλκιβιάδης Κλεινίου Σκαμβωνίδης, (pronunciation) transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades, son of Cleinias, from the deme of Skambonidai; c. 450–404 BC), was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last famous member of his mother's aristocratic family, the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician. During the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed his allegiance on several occasions. In his native Athens in the early 410s BC, he advocated for an aggressive foreign policy, and was a prominent proponent of the Sicilian Expedition, but fled to Sparta after his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him. In Sparta, he served as a strategic advisor, proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens. In Sparta too, however, Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies and was forced to defect to Persia. There he served as an advisor to the satrap Tissaphernes until his Athenian political allies brought about his recall. He then served as an Athenian General (Strategos) for several years, but his enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time. The Sicilian Expedition was Alcibiades' creation, and modern scholars have argued that, had that expedition been under Alcibiades' command instead of Nicias', the expedition might not have met its eventual disastrous fate.[1] In the years that he served Sparta, Alcibiades played a significant role in Athens' undoing; the capture of Decelea and the revolts of several critical Athenian subjects occurred either at his suggestion or under his supervision. Once restored to his native city, however, he played a crucial role in a string of Athenian victories that eventually brought Sparta to seek a peace with Athens. He favored unconventional tactics, frequently winning cities over by treachery or negotiation rather than by siege.[2] Alcibiades' military and political talents frequently proved valuable to whichever state currently held his allegiance, but his capacity for making powerful enemies ensured that he never remained in one place for long; and, by the end of the war he had helped rekindle in the early 410s, his days of political relevance were a bygone memory.

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Ancient Greece: Alexander the Great

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July 20 356 BC – June 10 323 BC ..The Persian empire lasted until it was conquered by a Hellenic army led by the Macedonian king, Alexander the Great (336-323 bce). The struggle between the Persians and the Greeks was a defining moment in the rise of Western Civilization. Philip’s great ambition was to lead the Greeks in an war of revenge against the Persian Empire, but he was assassinated in 336 bce and the undertaking was left to his son, Alexander the Great. Youthful and energetic king overthrew the Persians, unified the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East, and created the largest empire the world had yet seen before he reached the age of 33. Starting out with only 35,000 men in 334 bce, Alexander outwitted and defeated forces of superior numbers in three great battles (Granicus River, Issus, and Gaugamela) until finally he assumed the title of king of Persia in 328 bce. He pressed on and added to his empire Asian territories that Persia had not controlled, until his war-weary men mutinied on the borders of India. Returning to Persia, Alexander adopted many Near Eastern customs and ruled like a Near Eastern Despot. He died suddenly, of uncertain causes, in 323 bce. The Classical Age of Greece drew to a close with the rise of the Macedonian empire established by Philip II (359-323 bce), and his son, Alexander the Great (336-323 bce), who extended that empire to the Near East. The culture that resulted from the blending of eastern and western civilization is called Hellenistic, or “Greek-like”, to distinguish it from the Hellenic, or simply “Greek”, culture. It should be noted that the Greeks actually called themselves “Hellenes,” and they called Greece “Hellas,” after the legendary hero, Hellen, from whom they claimed descent. The “Greeks” were actually just one of the Hellenic tribes (like the Dorians and Ionians). However since they colonized southern Italy and thus were eth first to come into contact with the Romans, the Romans misnamed all the Hellenes “Greeks” and handed down this form to later history. Hellenistic culture lasted from Alexander’s death in 323 bce to Rome’s conquest of Egypt, the last of the Hellenistic kingdoms, in 30 bce. http://www.play.net/aoh/info/timeline-greece.asp http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/aegean/timeline.html Alexander the Great Alexander the Great (Greek: Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας or Μέγας Aλέξανδρος,[1][2] Megas Alexandros; July 20 356 BC – June 10 323 BC),[3][4][5] also known as Alexander III, was an ancient Greek[6][7][8] king (basileus) of Macedon (336–323 BC). He was one of the most successful military commanders in history, and was undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks. Following the unification of the multiple city-states of ancient Greece under the rule of his father, Philip II of Macedon (a labour Alexander had to repeat because the southern Greeks rebelled after Philip's death), Alexander conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire, including Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Bactria, and Mesopotamia, and extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as Punjab, India. Prior to his death, Alexander had already made plans for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian peninsula, after which he was to turn his armies to the west (Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian Peninsula). His original vision had been to the east, though, to the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea, as described by his boyhood tutor Aristotle. Alexander integrated many foreigners into his army, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion." He also encouraged marriages between his soldiers and foreigners; he himself went on to marry two foreign princesses. Alexander died after twelve years of constant military campaigning, possibly as a result of malaria, poisoning, typhoid fever, viral encephalitis or the consequences of alcoholism.[9][10] His legacy and conquests lived on long after him, and ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and cultural influence over distant areas. This period is known as the Hellenistic Age, and featured a combination of Greek, Middle Eastern and Indian culture. Alexander himself was featured prominently in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appeared as a legendary hero in the tradition of Achilles.

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Ancient Greece: Hellen

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Hellen (Ancient Greek: Ἕλλην, Héllēn) was the mythological patriarch of the Hellenes, the son of Deucalion (or sometimes Zeus) and Pyrrha, brother of Amphictyon and father of Aeolus, Xuthus, and Dorus. His name is also another name for Greek, meaning a person of Greek descent or pertaining to Greek culture, and the source of the adjective "Hellenic". Each of his sons founded a primary tribe of Greece - Aeolus the Aeolians, Dorus the Dorians and Xuthus the Achaeans (from Xuthus's son Achaeus) and the Ionians (from Xuthus's probably illegitimate son Ionas ) together with his sister's Pandora's and Thyia's sons with Zeus and according to Hesiod's (probably) "Eoiae" (Greek : Ηοίαι (ancient Greek Ἠοῖαι from Ἠ' οἷαι = "or such women as") or "Catalogue of Women"[1], Graecus the Graecians, Makednos the Makedones and Magnes the Magnetes . They conquered the Greek area of Phthia and subsequently spread their rule to other Greek cities. The people of those areas came to be called Hellenes, after the name of their ancestor.

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Geography and Polis

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c 800-500 bce A force for unity on a local level, but loyalty to one’s polis encouraged fierce regionalism that led to endemic warfare between neighboring poleis and prevented the unification of the Greeks as a whole (Greek disunity was also due in part to the geography of the Balkan peninsula, a mountainous region where the terrain hampers overland travel and communication.) [ The word politics is derived from polis (for it was in the context of the polis that the Greesk first developed the theory and practice of the various forms of government that have been prominent in Western civilation.] Travel by sea more efficient than travel by land => seao-faring became an important aspect of Greek life The Agean Sea, located between the Balkan peninsula and Anatolia, became the geographical center of Greek civilization

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Colonization

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Revival of Greek culture after the Dark age was accompanied by rapid population growth and economic change that destabilized society. Since farmers tilling the limited area of the rugged Balkan soil could not supply enough food for an expanding population, the economic crisis was partially resolved by establishing colonies outside Greece, from about 750 to 500 bce. Thus the Greeks transplanted the polis to the Black Sea and the further shores of the Med. Sea, including Iberia(Modern Spain), souther Gaul (the Med coast of France), Corsica, Sicily, southern Italy, Libya, and even the Egyption Delta (at the port af Naucratis). The most intensively settled region was southern Italy, which was home to so many Greeks that it became known to the Romans as Magna Graecia – “Great Greece.” Like the Phoenician colonies, those of the Greeks tended to be independent of their mother city-states, although cultural ties were maintained.

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Revolution

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Colonization alone could not resolve the social dislocation caused by increasing population and a rising volume of trade. At issue was not only the ability of farmers to feed the people, but also the relationship between social classes, for as trade increased while farming stagnated, the wealthy became wealthier, the middle-class became poor, and the poor became so overwhelmed by debt that they were sold into slavery. In order to avoid bloody anarchy between the classes, the poleis experimented with two basic measures: the extension of political power to the lower classes and the guidance of a dictator who mediated between the classes.

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Hoplites and Phalanx

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(In order to avoid bloody anarchy between the classes, the poleis experimented with two basic measures: the extension of political power to the lower classes and the guidance of a dictator who mediated between the classes.) The first of these two measures depended on a revolution in military technique. In ancient Greece, soldiers were responsible for their own equipment. During the Dark Age, the military was dominated by relatively small units of wealthy nobles who could afford to fight on horseback. With the growth of population around 800 bce, the focal point of the military shifted from small, elite units of cavalry to massed units of infantry. The citizen-soldiers who could afford spear and armor were known as hoplites and were organized into massive units called phalanxes, which could defy cavalry charges. As the phalanxes became the decisive factor in winning battles, hoplites demanded more political rights from the nobles who dominated the polis. By granting concessions, the nobles prevented anarchy and extended political power to a broader base.

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Tyrants

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When social tensions could not be resolved by mutual agreement, a polis might resort to the mediation of a tyrant. The term “tyrant” did not originally carry a negative connotation; it referred to an individual who received absolute power to restore order to a polis. Tyrants were usually nobles who sought to enhance their standing at the cost of rival aristocratic families by posing as the friends and guardians of othe common people. Although commoners generally appreciated the help of tyrants, they remained suspicious of their motives. => tyranny was inherently unstable and served as a temporary measure until a more stable form of government could be achieved. It was nevertheless, a common phase in the evolution of the Greek city-states between 700 and 500 bce.

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Ancient Greece: Architecture: Temples

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Greek temples were simple yet elegant, epitomizing the classical ideals of harmony and proportion. Typically rectangular, with angled roofs terminating at either end in gables (enclosing triangular spaces known as “pediments”) that overhung columned porches. The pediments and friezes (horizontal bands below the roofs) were usually adorned with sculptures depicting mythological scenes. The temples were often surrounded on all sides with columns, forming colonnades. The columns were typically fluted ( adorned with vertical grooves) and conformed to three basic designs, or “orders”, which were distinguished by their capitals: Doric order had a plain capital; Ionic capitals were adorned with a pair of volutes, or scroll-like spirals Corinthian capitals were the most ornate, adorned with intricate acanthus leaves

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Ancient Greece: Architecture: Temples: The Parthenon

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The characteristics of the Greek temple are illustrated in the architecture and art on the Acropolis of Athens. The Parthenon:temple to Athena: * built during the 440s and 430s bce as the apex of Pericles’ building program during the golden age of Athens, and still stands today, even after it was badly damaged in the seventeenth century. The sculptures that once adorned the pediments with depictions of battle scenes, known as Elgin Marbles, were removed in the nineteenth century to the British Museum. The immense statue of Athena that once stood inside the temple ( long since destroyed ) was designed by the sculptor Phidias ( 490-430 bce), who was hired by Pericles. Phididias was famous for excelling in a stately naturalism and for fashioning an immense statue of Zeus. A smaller temple on the Acropolis, the Erechtheum, was adorned with caryatids, or columns sculpted in the form of draped maidens holding up the roof with their heads. Temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis. The most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered one of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy, and is one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of restoration and reconstruction.[1] The Parthenon replaced an older temple of Athena, called the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon, that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a treasury, and for a time served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the 6th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin. After the Ottoman conquest, it was converted into a mosque in the early 1460s, and it even had a minaret. On 28 September 1687 an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the surviving sculptures, with Ottoman permission. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin or Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to the British Museum in London, where they are now displayed. The Greek government is committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece, so far with no success.

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Ancient Greece: Architecture: Hellenistic Period

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During this period, colonists transplanted Greek architecture to the Near East and the Levant, and inspired the Romans, who were politically on the Rise, into adopting their forms. Theaters in the round became a standard feature of urban centers throughout the Med. and the colonized cities, and Corinthian capitals became the favored order of columns. The Greek predilection for naturalistic statues also spread throughout these regions. Artistic virtuosity reached a new level as sculptors depicted not only gods and famous men, but also non-idealized images of the lower classes in scenes of daily life. Figures tended to be depicted in very dynamic, theatrical poses, as demonstrated by a sculpture known as the Laocoon group, which portrays a Trojan priest and his sons attacked by sea-serpents. * Famous Hellenistic statues include Lacoon Group, Venus de Milo and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Aristotle

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"( 384-322) •

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy

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Pre-socratic: Physical world; nature; debate over materialism and idealism Sophist: humanistic values; practical skills, such as public speaking and logic Socratic: Enduring moral and intellectual order of the universe; the psyche (mind/soul); “Virtue is Knowledge” Platonist: Ideas (Forms) are the basis of everything; dualism, the split between the world of Ideas and the everyday world; rationalism; severe moderation in ethics Aristotelian: Natural world is the only world; empiricism, using observation, classification, and comparison; “golden mean” in ethics Classic Greek philosophy Socrates Believed that a person should always try to do well. He believed that one should "know thyself." This is evidenced by disobeying a bad command. He made his most important contribution to Western thought through his method of inquiry. In addition, he also taught many famous Greek philosophers. His most famous pupil was Plato. However, since Socrates discussed ideas that upset many people (some in high positions), he was given a choice to be banished from Athens, or to be sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock (Conium maculatum). He was given a cup of hemlock by a guard. He chose to drink the poison, perhaps because he could not stand the thought of being banished from his home. The ironic thing about this is that during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants he was often threatened, but survived despite his continued protests for democracy. When democracy came, he was executed for corrupting their young children. Most of what we know about Socrates came from Plato as Socrates wrote nothing down. Plato and Aristotle Aristotle, Aristoteles in Latin and many other languages (but Aristote in French and Aristotele in Italian), (384 BC - 322 BC) has, along with Plato, the reputation of one of the most influential philosophers in Western thought. Their works, although connected in many fundamental ways, differ considerably in both style and substance. Plato wrote several dozen philosophical dialogues & arguments in the form of conversations, usually with Socrates as a participant and a few letters. Though the early dialogues deal mainly with methods of acquiring knowledge, and most of the last ones with justice and practical ethics, his most famous works expressed a synoptic view of ethics, metaphysics, reason, knowledge, and human life. Predominant ideas include the notion that knowledge gained through the senses always remains confused and impure, and that the contemplative soul that turns away from the world can acquire "true" knowledge. The soul alone can have knowledge of the Forms, the real essences of things, of which the world we see is but an imperfect copy. Such knowledge has ethical as well as scientific import. One can view Plato, with qualification, as an idealist and a rationalist. Classic Greek philosophy Socrates The philosopher Socrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.) of Athens The philosopher Socrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.) of Athens Socrates, an Athenian philosopher, believed that a person should always try to do well. He believed that one should "know thyself." This is evidenced by disobeying a bad command. He made his most important contribution to Western thought through his method of inquiry. In addition, he also taught many famous Greek philosophers. His most famous pupil was Plato. However, since Socrates discussed ideas that upset many people (some in high positions), he was given a choice to be banished from Athens, or to be sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock (Conium maculatum). He was given a cup of hemlock by a guard. He chose to drink the poison, perhaps because he could not stand the thought of being banished from his home. The ironic thing about this is that during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants he was often threatened, but survived despite his continued protests for democracy. When democracy came, he was executed for corrupting their young children. Most of what we know about Socrates came from Plato as Socrates wrote nothing down. [edit] Plato and Aristotle Aristotle, Aristoteles in Latin and many other languages (but Aristote in French and Aristotele in Italian), (384 BC - 322 BC) has, along with Plato, the reputation of one of the most influential philosophers in Western thought. Their works, although connected in many fundamental ways, differ considerably in both style and substance. Plato wrote several dozen philosophical dialogues—arguments in the form of conversations, usually with Socrates as a participant—and a few letters. Though the early dialogues deal mainly with methods of acquiring knowledge, and most of the last ones with justice and practical ethics, his most famous works expressed a synoptic view of ethics, metaphysics, reason, knowledge, and human life. Predominant ideas include the notion that knowledge gained through the senses always remains confused and impure, and that the contemplative soul that turns away from the world can acquire "true" knowledge. The soul alone can have knowledge of the Forms, the real essences of things, of which the world we see is but an imperfect copy. Such knowledge has ethical as well as scientific import. One can view Plato, with qualification, as an idealist and a rationalist. Aristotle was one of Plato's students, but placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses, and would correspondingly better earn the modern label of empiricist. Thus Aristotle set the stage for what would eventually develop into the scientific method centuries later. The works of Aristotle that still exist today appear in treatise form, mostly unpublished by their author. The most important include Physics, Metaphysics, (Nicomachean) Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul), Poetics, and many others. Aristotle was a great thinker and philosopher, and was called 'the Master' by Avicenna in the following centuries and 'the Philosopher' by others, since his philosophy was crucial in governing intellectual thought in the Western world. His views and approaches dominated early Western science for almost 2000 years. As well as philosophy, Aristotle was a formidable inventor, and is credited with many significant inventions and observations. Hellenistic philosophy Main article: Hellenistic philosophy During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world and then the Greco-Roman world. There were Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Syrians and Arabs who contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an influence. The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were: * Neoplatonism: Plotinus (Egyptian), Ammonius Saccas, Porphyry (Syrian), Zethos (Arab), Iamblichus (Syrian), Proclus * Academic Skepticism: Arcesilaus, Carneades, Cicero (Roman) * Pyrrhonian Skepticism: (?) Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus * Cynicism: Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes (taught Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism) * Stoicism: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Crates of Mallus (brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170 BCE), Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca (Roman), Epictetus (Greek/Roman), Marcus Aurelius (Roman) * Epicureanism: Epicurus and Lucretius (Roman) * Eclecticism: (?) Cicero (Roman) The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: early Islamic philosophy, Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy. Aristotle was one of Plato's students, but placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses, and would correspondingly better earn the modern label of empiricist. Thus Aristotle set the stage for what would eventually develop into the scientific method centuries later. The works of Aristotle that still exist today appear in treatise form, mostly unpublished by their author. The most important include Physics, Metaphysics, (Nicomachean) Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul), Poetics, and many others. Aristotle was a great thinker and philosopher, and was called 'the Master' by Avicenna in the following centuries and 'the Philosopher' by others, since his philosophy was crucial in governing intellectual thought in the Western world. His views and approaches dominated early Western science for almost 2000 years. As well as philosophy, Aristotle was a formidable inventor, and is credited with many significant inventions and observations. Hellenistic philosophy During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world and then the Greco-Roman world. There were Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Syrians and Arabs who contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an influence. The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were: * Neoplatonism: Plotinus (Egyptian), Ammonius Saccas, Porphyry (Syrian), Zethos (Arab), Iamblichus (Syrian), Proclus * Academic Skepticism: Arcesilaus, Carneades, Cicero (Roman) * Pyrrhonian Skepticism: (?) Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus * Cynicism: Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes (taught Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism) * Stoicism: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Crates of Mallus (brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170 BCE), Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca (Roman), Epictetus (Greek/Roman), Marcus Aurelius (Roman) * Epicureanism: Epicurus and Lucretius (Roman) * Eclecticism: (?) Cicero (Roman) The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: early Islamic philosophy, Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy.

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Ancient Greece: Art: Hellenistic Period

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During this period, colonists transplanted Greek architecture to the Near East and the Levant, and inspired the Romans, who were politically on the Rise, into adopting their forms. Theaters in the round became a standard feature of urban centers throughout the Med. and the colonized cities, and Corinthian capitals became the favored order of columns. The Greek predilection for naturalistic statues also spread throughout these regions. Artistic virtuosity reached a new level as sculptors depicted not only gods and famous men, but also non-idealized images of the lower classes in scenes of daily life. Figures tended to be depicted in very dynamic, theatrical poses, as demonstrated by a sculpture known as the Laocoon group, which portrays a Trojan priest and his sons attacked by sea-serpents. Other famous Hellenistic statues include the Venus de Milo and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

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Ancient Greece: Art: Pottery

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Greek art from the Archaic age survives mainly in the form of paintings on pottery vases (which were used in the transportation of agricultural produce) and other vessels. The style evolved from the geometric patterns of the Mycenaeans to representational art using black figures on red backgrounds and vice versa. The subject-matter ranged from famous mythological events to scenes of daily life.

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Ancient Greece: Art: Statues

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The Greeks excelled in three-dimensional representations of the human form, sculpted especially from marble or bronze, and occasionally from gold or ivory. Early Greek statues were influenced by Egyptian models and had a stiff, formal appearance, often presenting a bland smile. Sculpture evolved to a refined level of realism around 480bce, which marks the beginning of the Classical Age. While the Greeks produced life-like imitations of famous individuals such as Pericles and Socrates, their statues often served religious purposes. Status of patron deities were placed within temples, which were themselves a form of art.

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Ancient Greece: Athens

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Was the only Mycenaen center to survive the Dorian migrations, receiving refugees from other parts of the mainland. By the end of the Dark Age, its people were divided into four major tribes and subdivided into clans and brotherhoods called phratries, which were controlled by wealthy aristocrats who belonged to a council known as the Areopagus, or “Hill of Ares,” named after the god of war. The Areopagus annually elected 9 archons, or magistrates, who guided the administration of the Athenian polis, becoming members of the Areopages when their term was over.

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Draco

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The Athenian nobles were often at odds among themselves and were ill-suited to deal with the socio-economic turmoil of the seventh century bce. In 632, a noble named Cylon tried to create order by establishing himself tyrant of Athens, but was defeated by his aristocratic rivals. Yet in 621, as the crisis continued, the nobles set aside their differences and temporarily granted tyrant-like status to a certain Draco for the purpose of establishing a law code - until this time there was no written body of laws. Since Draco had to deal with revolutionary violence, the punishments he prescribed were harsh – hence, “Draconian” acquired the connotation of great severity Nevertheless, Draco’s code of laws was a first step toward curbing the power of nobility, since it bound all Athenians to its prescriptions, regardless of social class. The laws (θεσμοί) he laid down were the first written constitution of Athens. So that no one would be unaware of them, they were posted on wooden tablets (άξονες), where they were preserved for almost two centuries, on steles of the shape of three-sided pyramids (κύρβεις). Axones: The tablets were called axones, perhaps because they could be pivoted along the pyramid's axis, to read any side. The constitution featured several major innovations: * Instead of oral laws known to a special class, arbitrarily applied and interpreted, all laws were written, thus made known to all literate citizens, who could make appeal to the Areopagus for injustices.[citation needed] * The laws distinguish between murder and involuntary homicide. The laws, however, were particularly harsh. For example, any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery. The punishment was more lenient for those owing debt to a member of a lower class. The death penalty was the punishment for even minor offenses. Concerning the liberal use of the death penalty in the Draconic code, Plutarch states: αὐτὸς δ' ἐκεῖνος, ὥς φασιν, ἐρωτώμενος διὰ τί τοῖς πλείστοις ἀδικήμασι ζημίαν ἔταξε θάνατον, ἀπεκρίνατο τὰ μὲν μικρὰ ταύτης ἄξια νομίζειν, τοῖς δὲ μεγάλοις οὐκ ἔχειν μείζονα.[5] It is said that Drakon himself, when asked why he had fixed the punishment of death for most offences, killed anyone who asked him that question.

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Solon

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Solon (638-558) The Draconian law code did not adequately address the agrarian crisis at the root of Athenian instability. As small farmers struggled to raise crops overworked land, they often had to borrow from the wealthy nobles, who charged high rates of interest. In time many debtors could no longer pay the interest and either lost their farms or were sold into slavery. Those who were dispossessed or at risk began to threaten violence and demand that the debts be canceled and the land redistributed. In 594 bce, Solon was elected archon and given extraordinary powers (like Draco) to deal with the crisis. ! He instituted laws which canceled debts and restored freedom to citizens who had been forced into slavery, but he stopped short of redistributing the land. ! His reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Constitutional Reforms

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Constitutional Reforms Solon’s greatest legacy was the constitution he imposed on Athens, an achievement which he described in poetry. * Established a Council made up of 400 members (the boule), a general Assembly (the ekklesia), and public courts of law. These new organs of government assumed most of the traditional powers of the Areopagus, which now assumed the status of a supreme court. Participation in the various branches of government, as well as military service, depended on wealth. Solon divided Athenian citizens into four class based on how many units of agricultural produce their land yielded annually. Only the wealthiest class(which produced 500 or more units) could be elected as archons and belong to the Areopagus. The top 3 classes could be elected to the Council of 400. The lowest class, known as thetes (who owned little or no land), could not serve in public office, but they had the right to participated in the general Assembly and serve in the lower courts. While the upper classes provided cavalry and the middle class provided infantry, the thetes, who could not afford arms or armor, served as rowers in the navy.

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Ancient Greece: Athens: The Tyranny of Peisistratus

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* Popular tyrant As opposed to the contemporary definition of a tyrant, which is a single ruler, often violent and oppressive, Peisistratus was the ideal of a classical tyrant, which was a non-heritable position that a person took purely by personal ability. Peisistratus often tried to distribute power and benefits, rather than hoard them, with the intent of releasing stress between the economic classes. The elites, who had held power in the Areopagus Council, were allowed to retain their archonships. For the lower classes, he cut taxes and created a band of traveling judges to provide justice for the citizens of Athens. Peisistratus enacted a popular program to beautify Athens and promote the arts. Under his rule were introduced two new forms of poetry: Dithryamb and Tragic drama, and it oversaw the growth of the theater arts and sculpture. Ruled securely from 546 bce until his peaceful death in 527. Solon’s reforms checked the crisis but were too moderate to satisfy the radicals on either side of the warring factions. A nobleman Peisistratus seized power in the name of imposing order on the chaos that continued to plague Athens. A benevolent dictator, Peisistratus strove to win popular support by funding public works and instituting new religious celebrations, most notably the festival dedicade to Dionysos, the god of wine and reproduction He also enlarged the agora (marketplace) where the Councile of 400 met. Peisistratus left Solon’s constitutional reforms intact, but staffed public offices with his supporters while exiling his enemies. His sons ruled after his death until Athenian aristocrats assassinated one of them in 514 bce and deposed the other, with the help of the Spartans, in 510 bce. Ousted from political office and exiled twice during his reign.

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Ancient Greece: Athens: The Democratic Reforms of Cleisthenes

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"Ancient Greece: Athens: The Democratic Reforms of Cleisthenes The tyranny was followed by a revolution, from which progressive democratic forces led by the nobleman Cleisthenes emerged triumphant. In 508 bce Cleisthenes went far beyond Solon’s limited reforms by altering the very units of civic identity. •

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Ostracism

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Ancient Greece: Athens: Ostracism To ensure that no politician amassed too much power, the Athenians adopted the practice of ostracism, whereby an individual would be sent into exile for ten years if a vote decide that he was a potential threat to democracy. The voting was done by writing the name of the individual on a piece of broken pottery (ostraka in Greek)

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Hellenistic: Koine Greek

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Standardized form of the language based on the Athenian dialogue. For centuries, koine was the common language of commerce and culture all the way from Sicily to the border of India. * Language in which the New Testament was written during the early Roman Empire * parent of of Byzantine and modern Greek * Unofficially a first or second language in the Roman Empire. * Popular form of Greek which emerged in post-Classical antiquity (c.300 BC – AD 300), and marks the third period in the history of the Greek language. * Other names are Alexandrian, Hellenistic, Common, or New Testament Greek. * Important not only to the history of the Greeks for being their first common dialect and main ancestor of modern Greek, but also for its impact on Western culture as a lingua franca for the Mediterranean * Also the original language of the New Testament of the Christian Bible as well as the medium for the teaching and spreading of Christianity.

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Ancient Greece: Dark Age

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c 1100-800 bce The Dorian Greeks were culturally less advanced than the people they displaced, many of whom fled across the Aegean Sea to Anatolia, where they established Greek culture along the coast in a region called Ionia. At this time the art of writing was lost, as was the administrative skill that writing made possible. Since the cultural level of the Greeks declined and little is known of their history from about 1100-800bce, the era is know as the Dark Age of ancient Greece

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Ancient Greece: Mycenaean Bronze Age

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Ancient Greece: Mycenaean Bronze Age c 2300-1100 bce The ancient Greeks were the earliest representatives of Western civilization. They first migrated into the Balkans around 2300 bce. Through trade with their neighbors in the eastern Mediterranean, as well as reading expeditions, they amassed enough wealth to undertake ambitious building projects by 1700 bce .Since the most impressive of the early sites is at Mycenae, and the kings of this city seem to have exercised some influence over the other Greek towns, the early Greeks are called Mycenaeans. Other Mycenaean centers include Tiryns, Pylos, and Athens. Mycenea is renowned for its royal tombs whose interiors are shaped like beehives, its massive “Cyclopean” walls (named after the mythical race of one-eyed giants), and its sculpted entryway known as the Lion’s Gate. The Mycenaeans owed much of their cultural advancement to the Minoans who lived on the isle of Crete and dominated the eastern Med, learning from the arte of writing and the method of administration that centered on the royal palace. The Mycenaeans were at the height of their power from about 1400 to 1200 bce, when they conquered the Minoans on Crete and sacked the city of Troy in Anatolia. Yet around 1100 bce the maritime empire of the Mycenaeans was destroyed during the raids of the Sea Peoples, and the mainland centers were overrun by the Dorians, a people who spoke a dialect of Greek that differed form the one spoken by the Mycenaeans. Within a short time around 1250 BC, all the palaces of southern Greece were burned, including the one at Mycenae. This is traditionally attributed to a Dorian invasion of Greeks from the north, although some historians now doubt that such an invasion took place. As originally conceived, it certainly did not. No outsiders speaking Doric Greek entered Greece. Another theory postulates that some of the Mycenaean populace, who later came to speak the Doric dialect, turned on the weakened Mycenaean superstructure and razed it, settling in many regions formerly controlled by it. Displaced populations escaped to former colonies of the Mycenaeans in Anatolia and elsewhere, where they came to speak the Ionic dialect. Another circulating theory is that a drought caused the Mycenaean decline and that frustration with the powerful caused the burning of graineries and palaces. Another theory is that the destruction of the palaces is related to the Sea People who destroyed the Hittite Empire and attacked the 19th then the 20th dynasties of Egypt. The evacuation of the area was also due to the drought; although there is no climatological evidence for it other than lack of evidence for an invasion. However, no conclusive evidence has been brought forward to confirm any theory of why the Mycenaean citadel and others around it fell at this time.

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Ancient Greece: Periclean Athens: Delian League

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Ancient Greece: Periclean Athens: Delian League * The victories against the Persians preserved the autonomy of the Greek city-states, but the Greeks expected the Persians would strike again. * Naval alliance, founded in 478 bce on the isle of Delos, where the leagues treasury was established. * At its height it included well over a hundred poleis, located all along the shores of the Aegean Sea, including all but the southernmost of the Aegean islands, and parts of the northern Peloponnesus. * Athenians provide most of the ships while the smaller members mainly provided funds to maintain this fleet, which patrolled the Aegean Sea and raided Persian cities in Anatolia. An Athenian leader, Themistocles, persuaded his fellow citizens to build walls around the city and its port, the Piraeus, for defense against future invasions. The Athenians also saw wisdom in forging an alliance system, like Sparta’s Peloponnesian League, and organized the Delian League. (Transformed into Athenian empire when the polis of Thasos decided to leave the Delian League and its government was overthrown)

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Ancient Greece: Limitations of Athenian Democracy

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Ancient Greece: Limitations of Athenian Democracy Athens in the age of Pericles is a study in contradictions. No government in history had been as direct a democracy as Athens under the leadership of Pericles, inasmuch as all male citizens, regardless of rank or wealth, regularly served in the government. However, the money that made it possible, for poor citizens to serve their turn in public office was drown from the imperial tribute that Athens forced out of the city-states that it dominated. => democracy and aggressive imperialism were linked in Athenian practice. Furthermore, those who enjoyed political privileges were still a minority of the population. Female citizens could not participate in government. Resident aliens called metics, who were required to pay taxes and perform military service, were also excluded from government and they could not become citizens through a process of naturalization, since the requirement for citizenship was that both parents be Athenian citizens. Finally, slavery was widespread, and thus much of the Athenian labor force was exclude from the decision-making process. Only about a quarter of the inhabitants of Athens actually participated in the democracy.

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Ancient Greece: Metics

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(Athenian Empire: Limitations of Athenian Democracy) * Resident aliens * required to pay taxes and perform military service * excluded from government and they could not become citizens through a process of naturalization, since the requirement for citizenship was that both parents be Athenian citizens

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Drama

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* Performance of a narrative by a group of interlocutors rather than by a single bard * Beginning initially as a recital of verse by a chorus (or group of singers) alternating with a single leader, the art form eventually developed into a dialogue between an increasing number of principal actors. * Drama was one of the many ways that the Greeks honored their gods. Indeed, it had its origins in religious festivals, specifically those of the Athenians in honor of the god Dionysos. * Greek drama developed into two main categories – tragedy and comedy.

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Geography and the polis

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Geography and the polis (c 800-500 bce) As Greek culture revived between about 800 and 750 bce, the basic unit of social, economic, and political organization that emerged was the polis, or city-state (plural, poleis). The word “politics” is derived from polis, for it was the in the context of the polis that the Greeks first developed the theory and practice of the various forms of government that have been prominent in Western Civilization. The polis was a force for unity on the local level, but loyalty to one’s polis encouraged fierce regionalism that led to endemic warfare between neighboring poleis and prevented the unification of the Greeks as a whole. Greek disunity was also due in part to the geography of the Balkan Peninsula, a mountainous region where the terrain hampers overland travel and communication. Since travel by sea was more efficient than travel by land, sea-faring became an important aspect of Greek life, and the Aegean Sea, located between the Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia, became the geographical center of Greek civilization.

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age

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"The Classical Age of Greec* drew to a close with the rise of the Macedonian empire established by Philip II (359-336bce) and his son, Alexander the Great (336-323bce), who extended that empire to the Near East. The culture that resulted from the blending of eastern and western civilization is called Hellenistic, or “Greek-like,’” to distinguish it from the Hellenic, or simply “Greek,” culture. It should be noted that the Greeks actually called themselves “Hellenes” and they called Greece “Hellas,” after the legendary hero, Hellen, from whom they claimed descent. The “Greeks” were actually just one fo the Hellenic tribes (like the Dorians and Ionians). However, since they colonized southern Italy and thus were the first to come into contact with the Romans, the Romans misnamed all the Hellenes “Greeks” and handed down this from to later history. Hellenistic culture lasted from Alexander’s death in 323 bce to Rome’s conquest of Egypt, the last of the Hellenistic kingdoms, in 30 bce. The Hellenistic Kingdoms Alexander’s sudden death left a power vacuum that resulted in a struggle among his generals. After some forty years of warfare, the territory of Alexander’s short-lived empire was divided between three kingdoms, each named after the general who founded a new dynasty: •

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Science and Technology

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Architecture and Sculpture

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Religion

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Decline of the polis brought on a crisis of faith in traditional religion, to which many responded by joining mystery cults that Hellenistic armies brought home from the Near East. Much of their popularity was due to their promise of life after death. The most prominent of these was the Persian cult known as Mithraism, which involved the ritual sacrifice of a bull in honor of the god of light

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Philosophy

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Educated people tended to seek guidance from new schools of philosophy, most prominently Epicureanism and Stoicism, both of which were founded in Athens. These philosophies turned away from the traditional emphasis no public life to a new emphasis on the inner perfection of the individual. Epicurus (341-270 bce) taught that the good life consists in the pursuit of pleasure, although he recommended the pleasures of the mind and friendship over the pleasures of the body. Stoicism was founded by founded by Zeno of Citium (335 – 263 bce), who urged the complete suppression of desire, so that a state of enlightened apathy would blunt the psychological impact of misfortunes. His school of thought, which was named after the building (Stoa) where he taught, took inspiration from the idea that the cosmos is governed by divine providence. It urged people to respect one another as members of a universal brotherhood and recommended a world-state characterized by tolerance. Skepticism: third philosophical school that became prominent in Hellenistic culture was (), which questioned the very possibility of philosophical certainty; but since it had little to offer by way of psychological comfort, it did not become a dominant movement. Stoicism was perhaps the most successful of the Hellenistic schools of philosophy. It became dominant in the Roman Empire and exerted an influence on Christianity.

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Philosophy: Stoicism

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Educated people tended to seek guidance from new schools of philosophy, most prominently Epicureanism and Stoicism, both of which were founded in Athens. These philosophies turned away from the traditional emphasis no public life to a new emphasis on the inner perfection of the individual. Epicurus (341-270 bce) taught that the good life consists in the pursuit of pleasure, although he recommended the pleasures of the mind and friendship over the pleasures of the body. Stoicism was founded by founded by Zeno of Citium (335 – 263 bce), who urged the complete suppression of desire, so that a state of enlightened apathy would blunt the psychological impact of misfortunes. His school of thought, which was named after the building (Stoa) where he taught, took inspiration from the idea that the cosmos is governed by divine providence. It urged people to respect one another as members of a universal brotherhood and recommended a world-state characterized by tolerance. Skepticism: third philosophical school that became prominent in Hellenistic culture was (), which questioned the very possibility of philosophical certainty; but since it had little to offer by way of psychological comfort, it did not become a dominant movement. Stoicism was perhaps the most successful of the Hellenistic schools of philosophy. It became dominant in the Roman Empire and exerted an influence on Christianity. School of Hellenistic philosophy Founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC. Proved to be a popular and durable philosophy, with a following throughout Greece and the Roman Empire from its founding until all the schools of philosophy were ordered closed in 529 AD by the Emperor Justinian I, who perceived their pagan character to be at odds with his Christian faith. Stoic doctrine concerns the active relationship between cosmic determinism and human freedom, and the belief that virtue is to maintain a will that is in accord with nature. Because of this, the Stoics presented their philosophy as a way of life, and they thought that the best indication of an individual's philosophy not what a person says but how they behave "Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life" ************ History: ************ Beginning at around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile (i.e., "the painted porch"), from which his philosophy got its name. Unlike the other schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora. Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for the molding of what we now call Stoicism. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control ************ Stoic logic ************ The Stoics believed in the certainty of knowledge, which can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy, even if in practice only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses are constantly receiving sensations: pulsations which pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave behind an impression (phantasia). The mind has the ability (synkatathesis) to approve or reject an impression, to enable it to distinguish a representation of reality which is true from one which is false. ***************************** Stoic physics and cosmology ***************************** According to the Stoics, the universe is a material, reasoning, substance, known as God or Nature, which the Stoics divided into two classes, the active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion." The active substance, which can be called Fate, or Universal Reason (Logos), is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter:

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Archilocus

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Ancient Greece: Archilocus Greek poet and supposed mercenary. Most famous of the lyricists Pioneered the new poetic form Along with the epics of Homer and Hesiod, the satires of Archilochus were one of the mainstays of itinerant rhapsodes, who made a living declaiming poetry at both religious festivals and private homes. In the historical and poetic imagination, Archilochus represents the romantic intersection of the fighting and the poetic spirits;

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Early Greek poetry

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Early Greek poetry: •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Homer: (850-700 bce)

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Later Poets

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Later Poets Hessiod (c 700 bce) •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Drama

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Drama: •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Tragedy

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Comedy

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Comedy •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Prose

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Prose •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: History

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: History Two greatest historians were: •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: History: Herodotus

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"Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: History Two greatest historians were: •

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Ancient Greece: Medicine: Hippocrates

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"Hippocrates of Cos (c 460-377 bce) Known as the “Father of Medicine” •

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Ancient Greece: Sparta: Peloponnesian League

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian League Since the helots outnumbered the Spartiates about 10 to 1, the ruling class had to spend almost all its energy in vigilance against revolt. In order to defend itself from outside threats, Sparta spearheaded a system of alliances known as the Peloponnesian League. Almost all the city-states in the Peloponnesus joined this league for mutual defense under the leadership of Sparta, and in this way achieved a rudimentary level of unity that overcame to some extent the Greek tendency toward political fragmentation Alliance of states in the Peloponnese in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. By the end of the 6th century, Sparta had become the most powerful state in the Peloponnese, and was the political and military hegemon over Argos, the next most powerful state. Sparta acquired two powerful allies, Corinth and Elis, by ridding Corinth of tyranny, and helping Elis secure control of the Olympic Games. Sparta continued strategies like this to gain other allies in their league. Sparta defeated Tegea in a frontier war and offered them a permanent defensive alliance; this was the turning point for Spartan foreign policy. Many other states in the central and northern Peloponnese joined the league, which eventually included all Peloponnesian states except Argos and Achaea. Spartan superiority was guaranteed when Sparta defeated Argos in battle in 546. The league was organized with Sparta as the hegemon, and was controlled by the council of allies which was composed of two bodies. The first body was the assembly of Spartiates, and the Congress of Allies in which each allied state had one vote regardless of that state's size or geopolitical power. No tribute was paid except in times of war, when one third of the military of a state could be requested. Only Sparta could call a congress of the League. All alliances were made with Sparta only, so the member states had to form their own alliances with each other. And although each state had one vote, Sparta was not compelled to abide by any resolutions the League might come to. Thus the Peloponnesian League was not an "alliance" in the strictest sense of the word (nor was it wholly Peloponnesian for the entirety of its existence). The league provided protection and security to its members, and most importantly to Sparta. It was a very stable alliance which supported Oligarchies and opposed tyrannies. After the Persian Wars the League was expanded into the Hellenic League, including Athens and other states. The Hellenic League was led by Pausanias, but after he was recalled it was led by Cimon of Athens. Sparta withdrew and the Peloponnesian League was refounded with Sparta's original allies, while the Hellenic League turned into the Athenian-led Delian League. This might have been caused by Sparta and its allies' jealousy of the Athenians, who wanted to spread their rule. The two Leagues eventually came into conflict with each other in the Peloponnesian War. In the 360s BC the League went to war against Thebes and eventually was defeated. Thebes forced Corinth and other city states to separate from the Spartans subsequently disbanding the Peloponnesian League.

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War: Outbreak

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War (431-404 bce) Aggressive imperialistic stance taken by the Athenians destabilized the Greek world Greece now organized into two armed camps: Land-based Peloponnesian League (lead by Sparta) Sea-based Delian League led by Athens Fearing that its rival would eventually try to take over all of Greece, Sparta took the opportunity presented by a dispute between some colonies in western Greece to launch a pre-emptive invasion of Attica in 431 bce, hoping to break the power of the Athenians by defeating them in a decisive battle. The Athenians adopted a defensive policy advocated by Pericles: Recognized land superiority of Spartans, built walls Frustrated Spartans destroyed the farms outside Standoff continued for several years, and the cramped conditions inside the city led to an epidemic that killed at least on-fourth of the population, including Pericles

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War: Athenian Defeat

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(431-404 bce) Athenian Defeat Fighting continued in fits and starts for almost thirty years Without Pericles to guide the Athenians, the vacillated between one strategy and another, depending on the ability of rival politicians to sway the people’s vote. Most notorious of the Athenian leaders was Alcibiades (c450-404 bce), Pericles, nephew, who in 415bce, convinced the Athenians to invade Syrancuse (in Sicily), an ally of the Spartans. The invasion failed in part because Alcibiades ended up colluding with the Spartans in order to escape a plot hatched by his political rivals Athens never recovered from its defeat at Syracuse in 413bce. When the subject city-states that made up the Athenian empire learned of the disaster, many of them rebelled. A short-lived oligarchy took control of Athens in 411bce during the upheaval: Although democracy was soon restored, the humbled Athenian fleet could no longer effectively prosecute the war, for the Spartans now had an effective fleet of their own, paid for by the Persians, who took advantage fo the war in Greec to play their former enemies against one another. Finally, in 404bec, the Athenians surrendered. The terms of peace required them to tear down their city’s defensive walls and forbade them from building a fleet or attempting to revive their empire. The Thirty Tyrants (Greek: 30 τύραννοι or Greek: οἱ Τριάκοντα) were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War in April 404 BC. Its two leading members were Critias and Theramenes: The Thirty Tyrants were overthrown by the exiled general Thrasybulus and his allies from Thebes in 403 BC. After the Thirty had been overthrown in a coup that killed Critias, Lysias accused Eratosthenes of the wrongful death of Lysias' brother Polemarchus.

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Ancient Greece: Thirty Tyrants

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The Thirty Tyrants (Greek: 30 τύραννοι or Greek: οἱ Τριάκοντα) were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War in April 404 BC. Its two leading members were Critias and Theramenes: The Thirty severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens. Imposing a limit on the number of citizens allowed to vote (limiting the franchise for example to the wealthiest citizens) was a standard move on part of wealthy people who objected to being bossed around by the votes of the "rabble" in a broad-based democracy where all free adult males could vote. Participation in legal functions — which had previously been open to all Athenians — was restricted by the 30 to a select group of 500 persons. Only 3,000 Athenians were granted the right to carry weapons or receive a jury trial. The Thirty began a purge of important leaders of the popular party during the Peloponnesian War. Hundreds were condemned to execution by drinking hemlock, while thousands more were exiled from Athens. One of the most famous men who escaped from Athens during this reign of terror was the wealthy Lysias, the same Lysias mentioned in Plato's Republic. In Plato's Apology, Socrates recounts an incident in which the Thirty once ordered him (and four other men) to bring before them a certain man for execution. While the other four men obeyed, Socrates refused, not wanting to partake in the guilt of the executioners. By disobeying, Socrates knew he was placing his own life in jeopardy, and claimed it was only the disbanding of the oligarchy soon afterward that saved his life. The Thirty Tyrants were overthrown by the exiled general Thrasybulus and his allies from Thebes in 403 BC. After the Thirty had been overthrown in a coup that killed Critias, Lysias accused Eratosthenes of the wrongful death of Lysias' brother Polemarchus.

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Ancient Greece: Pericles

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Ancient Greece: Pericles (495-429 bce) During the leadership of Pericles, Athens was rebuilt on a grad scale and enjoyed a golden age Construction of Parthenon (temple to Athena) set on the hill known as the Acropolis (which has defined the image of the city for millennia) Transformation of the Delian League into the Athenian Empire occurred under the leadership of the Athenian general Pericles His imperialistic ambitions were matched by his commitment to democracy Democratic reforms did not end with the age of Cleisthenes, but continued according to the implied rule that those who provide indispensable service in wartime should acquire a share of political power Since the Athenian fleet was victorious at the crucial Battle of Lamais (480bce) thanks to the efforts of the thetes, they agitated for more political rights and found their champion in a young statesman named Pericles In 461 bce he helped initiate new reforms that further reduced the powers of the Areopagus by transferring some of its judicial functions to the peoples' courts His most important innovation came in the 450s, when office-holders began to be paid for their service - this measure made it possible for poor citizens to participate in government - privilege that had been theirs more in theory than practice when it lacked payment

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Ancient Greece: Sparta: Peloponnesian League

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian League Since the helots outnumbered the Spartiates about 10 to 1, the ruling class had to spend almost all its energy in vigilance against revolt. In order to defend itself from outside threats, Sparta spearheaded a system of alliances known as the Peloponnesian League. Almost all the city-states in the Peloponnesus joined this league for mutual defense under the leadership of Sparta, and in this way achieved a rudimentary level of unity that overcame to some extent the Greek tendency toward political fragmentation Alliance of states in the Peloponnese in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. By the end of the 6th century, Sparta had become the most powerful state in the Peloponnese, and was the political and military hegemon over Argos, the next most powerful state. Sparta acquired two powerful allies, Corinth and Elis, by ridding Corinth of tyranny, and helping Elis secure control of the Olympic Games. Sparta continued strategies like this to gain other allies in their league. Sparta defeated Tegea in a frontier war and offered them a permanent defensive alliance; this was the turning point for Spartan foreign policy. Many other states in the central and northern Peloponnese joined the league, which eventually included all Peloponnesian states except Argos and Achaea. Spartan superiority was guaranteed when Sparta defeated Argos in battle in 546. The league was organized with Sparta as the hegemon, and was controlled by the council of allies which was composed of two bodies. The first body was the assembly of Spartiates, and the Congress of Allies in which each allied state had one vote regardless of that state's size or geopolitical power. No tribute was paid except in times of war, when one third of the military of a state could be requested. Only Sparta could call a congress of the League. All alliances were made with Sparta only, so the member states had to form their own alliances with each other. And although each state had one vote, Sparta was not compelled to abide by any resolutions the League might come to. Thus the Peloponnesian League was not an "alliance" in the strictest sense of the word (nor was it wholly Peloponnesian for the entirety of its existence). The league provided protection and security to its members, and most importantly to Sparta. It was a very stable alliance which supported Oligarchies and opposed tyrannies. After the Persian Wars the League was expanded into the Hellenic League, including Athens and other states. The Hellenic League was led by Pausanias, but after he was recalled it was led by Cimon of Athens. Sparta withdrew and the Peloponnesian League was refounded with Sparta's original allies, while the Hellenic League turned into the Athenian-led Delian League. This might have been caused by Sparta and its allies' jealousy of the Athenians, who wanted to spread their rule. The two Leagues eventually came into conflict with each other in the Peloponnesian War. In the 360s BC the League went to war against Thebes and eventually was defeated. Thebes forced Corinth and other city states to separate from the Spartans subsequently disbanding the Peloponnesian League.

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War: Outbreak

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War (431-404 bce) Aggressive imperialistic stance taken by the Athenians destabilized the Greek world Greece now organized into two armed camps: Land-based Peloponnesian League (lead by Sparta) Sea-based Delian League led by Athens Fearing that its rival would eventually try to take over all of Greece, Sparta took the opportunity presented by a dispute between some colonies in western Greece to launch a pre-emptive invasion of Attica in 431 bce, hoping to break the power of the Athenians by defeating them in a decisive battle. The Athenians adopted a defensive policy advocated by Pericles: Recognized land superiority of Spartans, built walls Frustrated Spartans destroyed the farms outside Standoff continued for several years, and the cramped conditions inside the city led to an epidemic that killed at least on-fourth of the population, including Pericles

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Ancient Greece: Peloponnesian War: Athenian Defeat

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(431-404 bce) Athenian Defeat Fighting continued in fits and starts for almost thirty years Without Pericles to guide the Athenians, the vacillated between one strategy and another, depending on the ability of rival politicians to sway the people’s vote. Most notorious of the Athenian leaders was Alcibiades (c450-404 bce), Pericles, nephew, who in 415bce, convinced the Athenians to invade Syrancuse (in Sicily), an ally of the Spartans. The invasion failed in part because Alcibiades ended up colluding with the Spartans in order to escape a plot hatched by his political rivals Athens never recovered from its defeat at Syracuse in 413bce. When the subject city-states that made up the Athenian empire learned of the disaster, many of them rebelled. A short-lived oligarchy took control of Athens in 411bce during the upheaval: Although democracy was soon restored, the humbled Athenian fleet could no longer effectively prosecute the war, for the Spartans now had an effective fleet of their own, paid for by the Persians, who took advantage fo the war in Greec to play their former enemies against one another. Finally, in 404bec, the Athenians surrendered. The terms of peace required them to tear down their city’s defensive walls and forbade them from building a fleet or attempting to revive their empire. The Thirty Tyrants (Greek: 30 τύραννοι or Greek: οἱ Τριάκοντα) were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War in April 404 BC. Its two leading members were Critias and Theramenes: The Thirty Tyrants were overthrown by the exiled general Thrasybulus and his allies from Thebes in 403 BC. After the Thirty had been overthrown in a coup that killed Critias, Lysias accused Eratosthenes of the wrongful death of Lysias' brother Polemarchus.

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Ancient Greece: Thirty Tyrants

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The Thirty Tyrants (Greek: 30 τύραννοι or Greek: οἱ Τριάκοντα) were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War in April 404 BC. Its two leading members were Critias and Theramenes: The Thirty severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens. Imposing a limit on the number of citizens allowed to vote (limiting the franchise for example to the wealthiest citizens) was a standard move on part of wealthy people who objected to being bossed around by the votes of the "rabble" in a broad-based democracy where all free adult males could vote. Participation in legal functions — which had previously been open to all Athenians — was restricted by the 30 to a select group of 500 persons. Only 3,000 Athenians were granted the right to carry weapons or receive a jury trial. The Thirty began a purge of important leaders of the popular party during the Peloponnesian War. Hundreds were condemned to execution by drinking hemlock, while thousands more were exiled from Athens. One of the most famous men who escaped from Athens during this reign of terror was the wealthy Lysias, the same Lysias mentioned in Plato's Republic. In Plato's Apology, Socrates recounts an incident in which the Thirty once ordered him (and four other men) to bring before them a certain man for execution. While the other four men obeyed, Socrates refused, not wanting to partake in the guilt of the executioners. By disobeying, Socrates knew he was placing his own life in jeopardy, and claimed it was only the disbanding of the oligarchy soon afterward that saved his life. The Thirty Tyrants were overthrown by the exiled general Thrasybulus and his allies from Thebes in 403 BC. After the Thirty had been overthrown in a coup that killed Critias, Lysias accused Eratosthenes of the wrongful death of Lysias' brother Polemarchus.

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Ancient Greece: Pericles

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Ancient Greece: Pericles (495-429 bce) During the leadership of Pericles, Athens was rebuilt on a grad scale and enjoyed a golden age Construction of Parthenon (temple to Athena) set on the hill known as the Acropolis (which has defined the image of the city for millennia) Transformation of the Delian League into the Athenian Empire occurred under the leadership of the Athenian general Pericles His imperialistic ambitions were matched by his commitment to democracy Democratic reforms did not end with the age of Cleisthenes, but continued according to the implied rule that those who provide indispensable service in wartime should acquire a share of political power Since the Athenian fleet was victorious at the crucial Battle of Lamais (480bce) thanks to the efforts of the thetes, they agitated for more political rights and found their champion in a young statesman named Pericles In 461 bce he helped initiate new reforms that further reduced the powers of the Areopagus by transferring some of its judicial functions to the peoples' courts His most important innovation came in the 450s, when office-holders began to be paid for their service - this measure made it possible for poor citizens to participate in government - privilege that had been theirs more in theory than practice when it lacked payment

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Ancient Greece: Limitations of democracy

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"Ancient Greece: Limitations of democracy Athens under Pericles is as study in contradictions On one hand, no government in history had been as direct a democracy as Athes under the leadership of Pericle (all male citizens, regardless of rank or wealth, regularly served in the government) However, the money that made it possible for poor citizens to server their turn in public officet was drawn from the imperial tribute that Athens forced out of the city-states that it dominated =>

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Ancient Greece: Persian Wars

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The Greco-Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between several Greek city-states and the Persian Empire that started in 499 BC and lasted until 448 BC. The expression "Persian Wars" usually refers to both Persian invasions of the Greek mainland in 490 BC and in 480-479 BC;[2] In both cases, the allied Greeks successfully repelled the invasions. Not all Greeks fought against the Persians; some were neutral and others allied with Persia, especially as its massive armies approached. The Persians had been neighbors of the Greeks since 546 bce, when Cyrus the Great conquered King Croesus of Lydia in Anatolia and made the Ionian Greesk living there his subjects 499bce: the Ionians rebelled against Persian rule and sought military aid from the Greek mainland; Athens sent ships and raided the Persian-contlodde city of Sardis. (by) 494bce: the Persians regained control of Ionia and decided to invade Greece in retaliation 490 bce: Battle of Marathon (Darius I): and was the culmination of King Darius I of Persia's first full scale attempt to conquer the remainder of Greece and incorporate it into the Persian Empire, which would secure the weakest portion of his western border. Most of what is known of this battle comes from the Greek historian Herodotus. 480bce: Battle of Thermopylae (Xerces) (as detailed almost entirely by Herodotus) an alliance of Greek city-states fought the invading Persian Empire at the pass of Thermopylae in central Greece. - Athenians had to abandon their city, evacuating their population by ship to nearby islands for safety - After the Persians sacked Athens, they located and attacked the Greek fleet; but they were lured into a narrow strait near the isle of Salamis where they could not bring their numerical superiority to bear => The smaller Greek fleet, led by the Athenians, crushed the Persian fleet; without ships for supply, the Persian army was isolated 470bce: the Spartans led the Greek armies to victory on land at Plataea in 470 With the Persians humbled, the Ionian cities were able to reassert their independence

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Ancient Greece: Philip of Macedon

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"Sparta won the Peloponnesian War at great cost and was to exhausted to win the peace 403bce: The Athenians overthrew the Thirty Tyrants and restored their democracy, which lasted a century and a half (before the Roman Empire finally suppressed it) Sparta soon found it was not strong enough to dominate all of Greece - it could not prevent Athens from challenging its authority, nor other city-states, suche as Thebes, which took advantage of the power vacuum left by the Peloponnesian War to make its own bid for supremacy. The disunified Greek city-states continued their squabbling until Philip II of Macedon, king of a semi-Greek state in the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, invaded Greece in 338 bce and established unity after winning the battle of Chaeronea. League of Corinth: He organized the city-states into an alliance known as the League of Corinth, whose members nominally enjoyed self-rule but had to follow Macedon's lead in foreign affairs The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League (original name: Hellenes - 'The Greeks') was a federation of Greek states created by Philip II of Macedon during the winter of 338 BC/337 BC to facilitate his use of military forces in his war against Persia. The name 'League of Corinth' was coined by modern historians. The major provisions were: •

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Pre-socratics

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Earliest philosophers who were primarily interesetd in physics (Socrates gave philosophy a new orientation towards ethics) The ancient Greeks established the foundations of western science by developing basic theories of elements and atoms and by using mathematics to describe relationships between physical objects Pre-Socratics Like modern scientists, they attempted to explain natuarl phenomena without refernec to religion, yet they did not establish a distinctive scientific method Thales of Miletus (c 600 bce): Ionian: Established a long-running debate in physics by trying to identify the most basic substance that constituted all physical objects Heraclitus (c 500 bce) Believed the prime substance to be fire Was preoccupied with the problem of change and permanence Best remembered for his famous statement that one "cannot step into the same river twice". Empedocles (c 450 bce) Put forward theory of four elements (earth, water, air, and fire) - it remained the basic orthodoxy of western science until modern times Democritus (c 400 bce) theorized that physical objects were made up of atoms "atoma" in Greek means "indivisible" Pythagorus (c 530 bce) Believed that all reality could be describe in terms of mathematical relationships

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Pre-socratics: Heraclitus

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Earliest philosophers who were primarily interesetd in physics (Socrates gave philosophy a new orientation towards ethics) The ancient Greeks established the foundations of western science by developing basic theories of elements and atoms and by using mathematics to describe relationships between physical objects Pre-Socratics Like modern scientists, they attempted to explain natuarl phenomena without refernec to religion, yet they did not establish a distinctive scientific method Heraclitus (c 500 bce) Believed the prime substance to be fire Was preoccupied with the problem of change and permanence Best remembered for his famous statement that one "cannot step into the same river twice". Heraclitus is known for his doctrine of change being central to the universe, and that the Logos is the fundamental order of all. The primary meaning of logos is: something said; by implication a subject, topic of discourse, or reasoning. Secondary meanings such as logic, reasoning, etc. derive from the fact that if one is capable of λέγειν (infinitive) i.e. speech, then intelligence and reason are assumed.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Sophists

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Sophists By the fifth century bce, there were itinerant teachers, calling themselves "Sophists", or wise men, who for a price promised to make their pupils well-informed and skillful public speakers, and thereby successful politicians. The term "philosopher" is believed to have been coined by Pythagoras, who, when asked whether he was a wise man (sophos), denied it, saying he was merely a "lover of wisdom" (philos, friend; sophia, wisdom) ; => the philosopher was one who strove to acquire wisdom without presuming that he had attained it ! The Greek words sophos or sophia had the meaning of "wise" or "wisdom" since the time of the poet Homer, and originally connoted anyone with expertise in a specific domain of knowledge or craft ! In the second half of the 5th century BCE, particularly at Athens, "sophist" came to denote a class of itinerant intellectuals who taught courses in "excellence" or "virtue," speculated about the nature of language and culture and employed rhetoric to achieve their purposes, generally to persuade or convince others. Sophists claimed that they could find the answers to all questions. Most of these sophists are known today primarily through the writings of their opponents (specifically Plato and Aristotle), which makes it difficult to assemble an unbiased view of their practices and beliefs. Many of them taught their skills for a price. Due to the importance of such skills in the litigious social life of Athens, practitioners often commanded very high fees. The practice of taking fees, along with the sophists' practice of questioning the existence and roles of traditional deities (this was done to make "the weaker argument appear the stronger") and investigating into the nature of the heavens and the earth prompted a popular reaction against them. Their attacks against Socrates (in fictional prosecution speeches) prompted a vigorous condemnation from his followers, including Plato and Xenophon, as there was a popular view of Socrates as a sophist. Their attitude, coupled with the wealth garnered by many of the sophists, eventually led to popular resentment against sophist practitioners and the ideas and writings associated with sophism. Protagoras is generally regarded as the first of the sophists. Others include: Gorgias, Prodicus, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Lycophron, Callicles, Antiphon, and Cratylus.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Socrates

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Socrates (469-399 bce) Was mistaken for a sophist, but did NOT charge tuition Considered himself less of a teacher than one who merely helped others learn the truth for themselves Socratic Method: Called himself a gadfly, because he found that few of his interlocutors cared to be questioned in the rigorous method that he devised Focused on ethics: thought the polis needed moral citizens more than anything else Served with distinction in the Athenian military, yet felt he could best serve Athens by persuading his fellow citizens to care for their souls rather than military and economic success He did not write books -> we are primarily dependent on the "Dialogues" of his student, Plato (c 428-347 bce), for details of his philosophical doctrines Accused of corrupting the morals of the youth with his subversive questioning (during the chaos in Athens after the Peloponnesian War - Found guilty and executed by drinking hemlock (Plato wrote the "Dialogues" to refute the charges that had been leveled against his beloved teacher)

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Plato

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(428 BC - 348 BC), Wrote the "Dialogues" Founded the Academy (in Athens) Theory of Ideas: abstract principles that exist in the spiritual world in a perfect, unchanging state, while particular physical objects in the material world are merely imperfect copies of these ideas - the most important Idea was the "Good", which he copared to an intellectual sun since the mind that could percieve the Good could use it as a source of illumination for making accurate moral judgements. -> Plato belived that Socrates was put to death by the Athenians because they did not truly know the Idea of the Good; instead, their mistaken opinions about good and evil led them into the error of thinking that executing Socrates was for the good of Athens. Not a believer in democracy, largely because Athenian democracy wrongfully put Socrates to death. Republic: the most famous of his Dialogues: describes an ideal city made up of three classes arranged in a hierarchy: workers at the bottom, guardians (who serve as warriors and police) in the middle, and enlightened philosopher-kings at the top. Timaeus: In the opinion of ancient and medieval readers, however, Plato's most important dialogue - because it describes the creation of the universe and the place of human beings in the cosmos On The State: Plato's philosophical views had many societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. There is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic during his middle period, as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often speaking for Plato. This assumption may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason stand for different parts of the body. The body parts symbolize the castes of society.[29] * Productive Which represents the abdomen.(Workers) — the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. * Protective Which represents the chest.(Warriors or Guardians) — those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. * Governing Which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) — those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race." (Republic 473c-d) Plato describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth" (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. Sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Plato: Dialogues

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(428 BC - 348 BC), Plato's sophistication as a writer can be witnessed by reading his Socratic dialogues. Some of the dialogues, letters, and other works that are ascribed to him are considered spurious. Interestingly, although there is little question that Plato lectured at the Academy that he founded, the pedagogical function of his dialogues, if any, is not known with certainty. The dialogues have since Plato's time been used to teach a range of subjects, mostly including philosophy, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and other subjects about which he wrote. Republic: the most famous of his Dialogues: describes an ideal city made up of three classes arranged in a hierarchy: workers at the bottom, guardians (who serve as warriors and police) in the middle, and enlightened philosopher-kings at the top. Timaeus: In the opinion of ancient and medieval readers, however, Plato's most important dialogue - because it describes the creation of the universe and the place of human beings in the cosmos

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Ancient Greece: Religion

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Ancient Greece: Religion: Polytheistic Lacked a large professional priesthood that could dominate religious observance Ordinary citizens performed the sacrde rites in their own households - holders of public office fulfilled the role of priest in the civic rituals of the polis Concept of separation of religion and politics did not exist Each city-state had a special patron, yet all members of the pantheon were respected in all the city-states Athenians: Athena (above all others) Sparta: Zeus Delphi: special shrine to Apollo Various social events could also be offered to the gods - for example, athletic contests, such as the Olympics, which were first held in 776 bce at Olympia, honored the gods of Mt. Olympus. Other events that the Greesk offered to the gods include drama, recitations of poetry, dances, and singing. The ancient Greeks did not have a fully developed theology that answered the central questions of life and death. For insights into these matters they looked to their poets, whom they considered divinely inspired; in time, philosophers sought more precise answers by applying logic in their speculation

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Ancient Greece: Religion: Mystery Cults:

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Ancient Greece: Religion: Mystery Cults: The most prominent of these was the Persian cult known as Mithraism: involved the ritual sacrifice of a bull in honor of the god of light The decline of the polis brought on a crisis of faith in traditional religion Many responded by joining mystery cults that Hellenistic armies brought home from the Near East; much of the popularity was due to the promise of life after death

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Ancient Greece: Religion: Cults: (+Olympians)

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Greeks also worshipped fertility cults, especially those of * Dionysos, the god of wine * Demeter: The Olympian goddess of the harvest Mystery Cults: * Eleusinian Mysteries: associated with the worship of Demeter at Eleusis, whose members performed secretive rituals through which they apparently hoped to acquire immortality Principal Greek gods were the 12 Olympians: Aphrodite (Venus) - goddess of love, lust, and beauty Apollo (Apollo) - has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy; archery; medicine and healing; music, poetry, and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Ares (Mars, the Roman god of war and agriculture (whom they had inherited from the Etruscans), but among them, Mars stood in much higher esteem) - the son of Zeus (ruler of the gods) and Hera. Though often referred to as the Olympian god of warfare, he is more accurately the god of savage warfare, or bloodlust, or slaughter personified. Artemis (Diana) - She was the goddess of forests and hills,also known as the goddess of the hunt.[1] and was often depicted carrying a bow and arrows. The deer and the cypress were sacred to her. In later, Hellenistic times she even assumed the ancient role of Eileithyia in aiding childbirth. Athena (Minerva) - is the shrewd companion of heroes and the Goddess of heroic endeavour. Demeter (Ceres) - is the goddess of grain and fertility, the pure nourisher of the youth and the green earth, the health-giving cycle of life and death, and preserver of marriage and the sacred law Hephaestus (Vulcan) - he was the god of technology, blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metals and metallurgy, and fire. Hera (Juno) - Her chief function was as goddess of women and marriage. Hermes (Mercury) - the Olympian god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them, of shepherds and cowherds, of thieves and road travellers, of orators and wit, of literature and poets, of athletics, of weights and measures, of invention, of commerce in general, and of the cunning of thieves and liars. Poseidon (Neptune) - was the god of the sea, as well as of horses, and, as "Earth-Shaker," of earthquakes Zeus (Jupiter) - the king of the gods, the ruler of Mount Olympus, and the god of the sky and thunder.

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Revolution

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Ancient Greece: Archaic Period: Revolution: (c 800 - 500 bce) While trade increased while farming stagnated, the wealthy became wealthier, the middle-class became poor, and the poor became so overwhelmed by debt that they were sold into slavery. In order to avoid bloody anarchy between the classes, the poleis experimented with two basic measures: the extension of political power to the lower classes and the guidance of a dictator who mediated between the classes

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Ancient Greece: Sparta

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Located in Peloponnesus (735-715bce & 650-620 bce) Sparta came to dominate the peninsula after fighting two wars against its neighbor Messenia, whose inhabitants it enslaved These conflicts nearly destroyed Sparta -> the Spartan response was to put its entire society on permanent war-footing, becoming highly regimented in order to improve its ability to win wars: * All male citizens became part of a standing army * The freedom of the individual was completely subordinated to the needs of the state * The Spartans abandoned the arts Lycurgus: the laws that regulated the new Spartan society were attributed to {} - under the Lycurgan code all males from age of 7 to 30 lived in barracks and received military training - women also received physical education and were hardened to a lifestyle without comforts in order to promote a militaristic mind-set Spartiates: citizens of Sparta helots: slaves of Sparta * Periokoi: since Spartiates were not allowed to conduct business (which was seen as a corrupting influence), the services of merchants were provide by a third, marginalized class known as periokoi, who were not citizens and had no political authorit

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Ancient Greece: Sparta: Spartan Government

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Ruled by 2 kings of limited authority who shared power with a Council of Elders and an Assembly Council of Elders: 28 men who were at least 60 years old. Elected for life and served as judges; since they also decide what proposals would be presented to the Assembly (therefore setting the agenda of the polis), they wielded the greatest power of any branch of the government Assembly: Consisted of all male citizens over the age of 3; (who voted by acclamation, shouting "yes" or "no" on a proposal rather than taking a precise count) The Asembly did have a certain check on the Council of Elders inasmuch as it annually elected a board of ephors-five men who conducted foreign policy and made sure that the kings and generals did not overstep their authority during military campaigns

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Science and Technology: Eristarchus

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(c 310 250 bce) postulated a heliocentric theory, arguing that the earth revolves around the sun and causes the succession of day and night by its rotation, but his theory was rejected in favor of the geocentric, or earth-centered, theory preferred by Aristotle. His astronomical ideas were rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy until they were successfully revived by Copernicus and extensively developed and built upon by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton nearly 2000 years later.

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Comedy: Aristophanes

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"(450-385 bce) Greek Old Comic dramatist. * known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy.[1] 

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Ancient Greece: Archimedes:

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(287-212 bce) Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer Calculated the value of pi, using the method of exhaustion The Archimedes' screw, Archimedean screw, or screwpump is a machine historically used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. It was one of several inventions and discoveries traditionally attributed to Archimedes in the 3rd century BC. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity.

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Pre-Socratics: Democritus

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"Theorized that physical objects were made up of atoms (Atoma in Greek means “indivisible”) •

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Ancient Greece: Dark Age: Dorians

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"The Dorian Greeks were culturally less advanced than the people they displaced, many of whom fled across the Aegean Sea to Anatolia, where they established Greek culture along the coast in a region called Ionia. At this time the art of writing was lost, as was the administrative skill that writing made possible Since the cultural level of the Greeks declined and little is known of their history from about 1100 to 800 bce, this era is known as the Dark Age of ancient Greece *The Dorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for: •

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Ancient Greece: Religion: Eleusinian Mysteries

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Initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at Eleusis in ancient Greece. Of all the mysteries celebrated in ancient times, these were held to be the ones of greatest importance. These myths and mysteries, begun in the Mycenean period (c. 1700 BC) and lasting two thousand years, were a major festival during the Hellenic era, later spreading to Rome. The rites, ceremonies, and beliefs were kept secret, as initiation was believed to unite the worshipper with the gods and included promises of divine power and rewards in the afterlife. There are many paintings and pieces of pottery that depict various aspects of the Mysteries. Since the Mysteries involved visions and conjuring of an afterlife, some scholars believe that the power and longevity of the Eleusinian Mysteries came from psychedelic agents.

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Pre-Socratics: Empedocles

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Eventually a theory of 4 elements (earth, air, fire, water) was put forward by Empedocles (c 450 bce) which remained the basic orthodoxy of western science until modern times His philosophy is best known for being the origin of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements. Also proposed powers called Love and Strife which would act as forces to bring about the mixture and separation of the elements. These physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which also dealt with the origin and development of life. Influenced by the Pythagoreans, he supported the doctrine of reincarnation. Some of Empedocles' work still survives today, more so than in the case of any other Presocratic philosopher. Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments.

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Ancient Greece: Art and Architecture: Elgin Marbles

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The sculptures that once adorned the pediments with depictions of battle-scenes, were removed in the 19th century to the British Museum * collection of classical Greek marble sculptures, inscriptions and architectural members that originally belonged to the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis of Athens. Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803, obtained an ambiguous permission from the Ottoman authorities to remove pieces from the Acropolis. From 1801 to 1812 Elgin's agents removed about half of the surviving sculptures of the Parthenon, as well as architectural members and sculpture from the Propylaea and Erechtheum. The Marbles were transported by sea to England. In Britain, Elgin was criticised for his actions, labelled by some as vandalism. However, following a public debate in Parliament and subsequent exoneration of Elgin's actions, the marbles were purchased by the British Government in 1816 and placed on display in the British Museum, where they stand now on view in the purpose-built Duveen Gallery. However, the legality of the removal has been questioned and the debate continues as to whether the Marbles should remain in the British Museum or be returned to Athens.

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Philosophy: Epicureanism

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Epicurus taught that the good life consists in the pursuit of pleasure, although he recommended the pleasures of the mind and friendship over the pressures of the body System of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. 341–c. 270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) as well as absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy of a simple life make it quite different from "hedonism" as it is commonly understood. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention.

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Euripides

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The plays of Euripides (c 480 – 406 bce) depart from the moral and religious certainties of Aeschylus and Sophocles while demonstrating greater psychological sophistication in the portrayal of characters Euripides’ play Medea, named after a sorceress who murdered here children in an fit of rage upon learning of her husband’s adultery, unconventionally ends with the escape of the sorceress rather than her punishment at the hands of the gods Euripides won fewer awards than Aeschylus and Sophocles, in part because Athenian audiences seldom appreciated unconventional treatments of traditional themes By the time Euripides was writing for the stage, Athens was fighting for its existence in the Peloponnesian War Euripides was in tune with the skeptical mood of the later years of this struggle, and by presenting unorthodox version of myths and legends; he exposed the foolishness of some popular beliefs and sometimes the emptiness of contemporary values For his 90 or more tragedies, the Athenians award the first prize to Euripides only five times, perhaps because his unorthodox plays angered the audience But later ages, far removed from the stresses of Hellenic times, found his dramas more to his liking

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Science and Technology: Euclid

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"(Literary works of the Hellenistic age pale compared to the texts of the Classical Age, but study of the physical world reached new heights) In mathematics, Euclid (300bce) established a collection of geometrical theorems in a book called the Elements •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Hubris

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* Term used in modern English to indicate overweening pride, self-confidence, superciliousness, or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In ancient Greece, hubris referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich. The word was also used to describe actions of those who challenged the gods or their laws, especially in Greek tragedy, resulting in the protagonist's downfall. Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it was not only proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent "outrageous treatment" in general. The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atē, ancient Greek for "ruin, folly, delusion," is the action performed by the hero, usually because of his/her hubris, or great pride, that leads to his/her death or downfall. The plays of Aeschylus are profoundly moral and religious, focusing on the vice of hubris, or overweening pride, by which headstrong individuals call down nemesis, or divine punishment, upon them.

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Ancient Greece: Medicine: Hippocratic Oath

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The Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by physicians pertaining to the ethical practice of medicine. Widely believed that the oath was written by Hippocrates, the father of medicine, in the 4th century BC, or by one of his students. It is thus usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus. Classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by Pythagoreans, a theory that has been questioned due to the lack of evidence for a school of Pythagorean medicine. Although mostly of historical and traditional value, the oath is considered a rite of passage for practitioners of medicine, although it is not obligatory and no longer taken up by all physicians. Original (translated from Greek): I swear by Apollo, Asclepius, Hygieia, and Panacea, and I take to witness all the gods, all the goddesses, to keep according to my ability and my judgment, the following Oath. To consider dear to me, as my parents, him who taught me this art; to live in common with him and, if necessary, to share my goods with him; To look upon his children as my own brothers, to teach them this art. I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment and never do harm to anyone. To please no one will I prescribe a deadly drug nor give advice which may cause his death. Nor will I give a woman a pessary to procure abortion. But I will preserve the purity of my life and my arts. I will not cut for stone, even for patients in whom the disease is manifest; I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art. In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my patients, keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all seduction and especially from the pleasures of love with women or with men, be they free or slaves. All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or in daily commerce with men, which ought not to be spread abroad, I will keep secret and will never reveal. If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practice my art, respected by all men and in all times; but if I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my lot.

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Science and Technology: Hipparchus

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* Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician of the Hellenistic period. (190-120) credited for developing the astrolabe: device for making accurate observations of celestial bodies. Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. First Greek whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Chaldeans from Babylonia. Possessed a trigonometric table, and appears to have solved some problems of spherical trigonometry. With his solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses. Other reputed achievements include the discovery of precession, the compilation of the first comprehensive star catalog of the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, also of the armillary sphere which first appeared during his century and was used by him during the creation of much of the star catalogue. It would be three centuries before Claudius Ptolemaeus' synthesis of astronomy would supersede the work of Hipparchus; it is heavily dependent on it in many areas.

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Hesiod

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“Works and Days”: describes the hard life of the small farmer “Theogony”: describes the birth of the gods and their legends * Hesiod and Homer are generally considered the earliest Greek poets whose work has survived since at least Herodotus's time (Histories, 2.53), and they are often paired. Scholars disagree about who lived first, and the fourth-century BCE sophist Alcidamas' Mouseion even brought them together in an imagined poetic agon, the Contest of Homer and Hesiod. Aristarchus first argued for Homer's priority, a claim that was generally accepted by later antiquity. Hesiod's writings serve as a major source on Greek mythology, farming techniques, archaic Greek astronomy and ancient time-keeping.

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Ancient Greece: Sparta: Lycurgan Code

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Lycurgus: the laws that regulated the new Spartan society were attributed to Lycurgus - under the Lycurgan code all males from age of 7 to 30 lived in barracks and received military training - women also received physical education and were hardened to a lifestyle without comforts in order to promote a militaristic mind-set

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Ancient Greece: Colonization: Magna Graecia

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Post Dark Ages: The Greeks could not provide enough food for the expanding population from their soil, so they transplanted the polis to the Black Sea and the further shores of the Mediterranean Sea – the most intensively settled region was southern Italy, which was home to so many Greeks that it became known to the Romans as Magna Graecia – “Great Greece”. * name of the area in Southern Italy and Sicily that was colonised by Greek settlers in the eighth century BCE, who brought with them the lasting imprint of their Hellenic civilization. With this colonization, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites and its traditions of the independent polis. An original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilizations. The most important cultural transplant was the Chalcidean / Cumaean variety of the Greek alphabet, which was adopted by the Etruscans; the Old Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into the Latin alphabet, which became the most widely used alphabet in the world. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Kapuê (Capua), Neapolis (Naples), Syracuse, Akragas, Subaris (Sybaris). Other cities in Magna Graecia included Taras (Taranto), Epizephyrioi Lokroi or Locri, Rhegion, Kroton ( Crotone), Thurii, Elea and Ankon (Ancona). Following the Pyrrhic War, Magna Graecia was absorbed into the Roman Republic

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Homer: (850-700 bce): Odyssey

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One of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. The poem was probably written near the end of the eighth century BC, somewhere along the Greek-controlled western Turkey seaside, Ionia. The poem is, in part, a sequel to Homer's Iliad and mainly centers on the Greek hero Odysseus (or Ulysses, as he was known in Roman myths) and his long journey home to Ithaca following the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. During this absence, his son Telemachus and wife Penelope must deal with a group of unruly suitors, called Proci, to compete for Penelope's hand in marriage, since most have assumed that Odysseus has died. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon and is indeed the second—the Iliad is the first—extant work of Western literature. It continues to be read in Homeric Greek and translated into modern languages around the world. The original poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos, perhaps a rhapsode, and was intended more to be sung than read. The details of the ancient oral performance and the story's conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a regionless poetic dialect of Greek and comprises 12,110 lines of dactylic hexameter. Among the most impressive elements of the text are its strikingly modern non-linear plot, and the fact that events are shown to depend as much on the choices made by women and serfs as on the actions of fighting men. In the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage.

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Ancient Greece: 9 muses

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Calliope: Epic Poetry Clio: History Erato: Erotic poetry and mime Euterpe: Lyric poetry and music Melpomene: Tragedy Polyhymnia: Sacred hymn Terpsichore: Dance and song Thalia: Comedy Urania: Astronomy * According to Hesiod's Theogony (seventh century BC), they are the daughters of Zeus, king of the gods, and Mnemosyne, goddess of memory. * For Alcman and Mimnermus, they were even more primordial, springing from Uranus and Gaia Sisterhood of goddesses or spirits, their number set at nine by Classical times, who embody the arts and inspire the creation process with their graces through remembered and improvised song and stage, writing, traditional music, and dance. They were water nymphs, associated with the springs of Helicon and with Pieris, from which they are sometimes called the Pierides. The Olympian system set Apollo as their leader, Apollon Mousagetēs. Not only are the Muses explicitly used in modern English to refer to an inspiration, as when one cites his/her own artistic muse, but they are also implicit in the words "amuse" or "musing upon".

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Pre-socratics: Pythagoras

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! Ionian Greek mathematician and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. ! The philosopher Pythagoras believed that all reality could be describe in terms of mathematical relationships ! Often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist; however some have questioned the scope of his contributions to mathematics and natural philosophy. ! Herodotus referred to him as "the most able philosopher among the Greeks". His name led him to be associated withPythian Apollo; Aristippus explained his name by saying, "He spoke (agor-) the truth no less than did the Pythian (Pyth-)," and Iamblichus tells the story that the Pythia prophesied that his pregnant mother would give birth to a man supremely beautiful, wise, and beneficial to humankind.

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Nine Lyric Poets

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! Canon of archaic Greek composers esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria as worthy of critical study. Pindar (choral lyric, fifth century BC) Alcman (choral lyric, seventh century BC) Sappho (monodic lyric, c. 600 BC) Alcaeus (monodic lyric, c. 600 BC) Anacreon (monodic lyric, sixth century BC) Stesichorus (choral lyric, sixth century BC) Ibycus (choral lyric, sixth century BC) Simonides (choral lyric, sixth century BC) Bacchylides (choral lyric, fifth century BC)

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: Later Poets: Pindar

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! Greek lyric poet. ! Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, Pindar is the one whose work is best preserved, and some critics since antiquity have regarded him as the greatest. Pindar is one of the most famous Greek poets, one of the few whose works are still extant in sizeable part. Wrote choral works, such as pæans and other hymns for religious festivals. Most of his writings were in honor of notable personages and victory odes in honor of winners at various games. 45 victory odes are still fully extant, grouped in four books based on the games in which the celebrated winner had competed : Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian and Nemean. His patrons included: Hieron of Syracuse, Theron of Acragas, and Arcesilas of Cyrene.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Socratic Dialogue

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(* Generally, the works of Plato's early years are all considered to be Socratic dialogues, but many of the later ones are often included here as well.) Genre of prose literary works developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BC, preserved today in the dialogues of Plato and the Socratic works of Xenophon - either dramatic or narrative - in which characters discuss moral and philosophical problems, illustrating the Socratic method. Socrates is often the main character. Most accurately, the term refers to works in which Socrates is a character, though as a genre other texts are included; Plato's Laws and Xenophon's Hiero are Socratic dialogues in which a wise man other than Socrates leads the discussion (the Athenian Stranger and Simonides, respectively). Likewise, the stylistic format of the dialogues can vary; Plato's dialogues generally only contain the direct words of each of the speakers, while Xenophon's dialogues are written down as a continuous story, containing, along with the narration of the circumstances of the dialogue, the "quotes" of the speakers. According to a fragment of Aristotle, the first author of Socratic dialogue was Alexamenes of Teos, but we do not know anything else about him, whether Socrates appeared in his works, or how accurate Aristotle was in his unfavorable judgement about him. In addition to Plato and Xenophon, Antisthenes, Aeschines of Sphettos, Phaedo of Elis, Euclid of Megara, Simon the Shoemaker, Theocritus, Tissaphernes and Aristotle all wrote Socratic dialogues, and Cicero wrote similar dialogues in Latin on philosophical and rhetorical themes, for example De re publica.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Plato: Republic

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"! The most famous of his Dialogues: describes an ideal city made up of three classes arranged in a hierarchy: workers at the bottom, guardians (who serve as warriors and police) in the middle, and enlightened philosopher-kings at the top. ! Socratic dialogue by Plato, written in approximately 360 BC. ! One of the most influential works of philosophy and political theory, and arguably Plato's best known work. ! In it, Socrates and various other Athenians and foreigners discuss the meaning of justice and whether the just man is happier than the unjust man by constructing an imaginary city ruled by philosopher-kings. ! The dialogue also discusses the nature of the philosopher, Plato's Theory of Forms, the conflict between philosophy and poetry, and the immortality of the soul. The scene of the dialogue is the house of Polemarchus at Piraeus, a city-port connected to Athens by the Long Walls. Socrates was not known to venture outside of Athens regularly. The whole dialogue is narrated by Socrates the day after it actually took place - possibly to Timaeus, Hermocrates, Critias, and another unnamed person, but this interpretation is somewhat uncertain. Characters •

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Sophocles

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! Second of the three ancient Greek tragedians whose work has survived to the present day. ! His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus, and earlier than those of Euripides. ! Most famous of Sophocles's tragedies are those concerning Oedipus and Antigone: these are often known as the Theban plays or The Oedipus Cycle, although each play was actually a part of different trilogy, the other members of which are now lost. ! Influenced the development of the drama, most importantly by adding a third actor and thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot. Also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus. ! For almost 50 years, Sophocles was the most-awarded playwright in the dramatic competitions of ancient Athens that took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. According to the Suda, a 10th century encyclopedia, Sophocles wrote 120 or more plays during the course of his life, but only seven have survived in a complete form, namely Ajax, Antigone, Trachinian Women, Oedipus the King, Electra, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus. Competed in around thirty drama competitions; he won perhaps twenty four and never received lower than second place. Aeschylus won fourteen competitions and was defeated by Sophocles at times. Euripides won only four competitions.

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Ancient Greece: Hellenistic Age: Philosophy: Skepticism

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Third major philosophical school in Hellenistic culture was skepticism, which questioned the very possibility of philosophical certainty; Since it had little to offer by way of psychological comfort, it did not become a dominant movement. * questioned whether anything could be known for certain * argued that all beliefs were relative * concluded that autarky could be achieved only by recognizing that inquiry was fruitless Pyrrho of Elis: credited as being the first Skeptic philosopher, and the inspiration for the school known as Pyrrhonism founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC * Two main varieties of ancient skepticism: Academic and Pyrrhonian. * Many of the arguments of the ancient skeptics were developed in response to the positive views of their contemporaries, especially the Stoics and Epicureans, but these arguments have been highly influential for subsequent philosophers and will continue to be of great interest as long as there is widespread disagreement regarding important philosophical issues.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Plato: Timaeus

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Republic: the most famous of his Dialogues: describes an ideal city made up of three classes arranged in a hierarchy: workers at the bottom, guardians (who serve as warriors and police) in the middle, and enlightened philosopher-kings at the top. ! Timaeus: In the opinion of ancient and medieval readers, however, Plato's most important dialogue - because it describes the creation of the universe and the place of human beings in the cosmos ! * Theoretical treatise of Plato in the form of a Socratic dialogue, written circa 360 BC. The work puts forward speculation on the nature of the physical world. It is followed by the dialogue Critias. Nature of the physical world Purpose of the universe Properties of the universe The creation of the soul of the world The elements Golden ratio

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Ancient Greece: Literature: Poetry and Literacy: History: Thucydides

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"(c 460 – 400 bce) !

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Ancient Greece: Periclean Athens: Themistocles

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! Athenian soldier and statesman. ! As archon in 493 BC, he convinced the Athenians that a powerful fleet was needed to protect them against the Persians. ! During the second Persian invasion under Xerxes I, he commanded the Athenian squadron and through his strategy the Greeks won the Battle of Salamis in 480 BC. ! After the war, he persuaded the Athenians to rebuild the walls of the city on a vastly larger scale than had existed before. This aroused uneasiness in Sparta. So the Spartan faction in Athens tried to undermine him and in 470 BC he was ostracised. He moved to Argos, but the Spartans forced his expulsion from there in 467 BC. He eventually travelled to Persia where the king Artaxerxes I made him governor of Magnesia where he spent the rest of his life. He was a man of grand plans whose patriotism later became confused with his own advancement. He was convinced that only he could realise the dream of a great Athenian empire.

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Ancient Greece: Philosophy: Pre-socratics: Thales of Miletus

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Thales, who lived around 625 BC, is called the ‘first philosopher and the first scientist’. He is considered to be the first thinker to propose a single universal principle of the material universe, “a unique substratum that, itself unchanging, underlay all change.” When we think about this problem of comprehending change we recognize that there must exist something that is essential to change that remains unchanged. (c 600 bce): Ionian: Established a long-running debate in physics by trying to identify the most basic substance that constituted all physical objects ! Before Thales, the Greeks explained the origin and nature of the world through myths of anthropomorphic gods and heroes. Phenomena such as lightning or earthquakes were attributed to actions of the gods. ! In contrast to these mythological explanations, Thales attempted to find naturalistic explanations of the world, without reference to the supernatural. He explained earthquakes by hypothesizing that the Earth floats on water, and that earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves. Thales’ political life had mainly to do with the involvement of the Ionians in the defense of Anatolia against the growing power of the Persians, who were then new to the region.