Western Civilization Exam 2

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Quintus Aurelius Symmachus

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(345-402 CE), dedicated pagan during time of christian emergence, Roman statesman, during time: imperial laws of 391 & 392 (prohibited polytheistic worship and sacrifices- dramatic transformation with emergence of christianity- restructuring of intellectual and social live from ancient ways)

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Pontius Pilate

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Prefect (governor) of the Roman province of Judaea from AD 26–36, role was to crush opposition to Rome and keep peace, knew history of Jewish of opposition to Roman rule, considered Jesus a threat, arrested and crucified him, became central motif of christian faith (divine plan to rescue human beings from sins)

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Paul of Tarsus

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(c. 10-65 CE), traveled to Asia minor, preached to Jews and Gentiles, excused converts from Jewish rituals (ex: circumcision), violent opposition to Christianity until he had a vision and became a significant missionary, shifted Christianity away from Judaism

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The Essenes

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Jewish religious group that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE, apocalypticism, Dead sea scrolls, a sect created to protest changes in office of High Priest, created own settlement at Qumran, expected two Messiahs to appear to lead war against Satan and Judea's enemies

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The "Apologists"

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writers who defended christianity, brought classical knowledge/philosophy into religion
ex: Justin Martyr (100-165 CE)- classical greek ideas
ex: Clement of Alexander (150-216 CE)- believed christians should study Greek philosophy

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Docetists

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(70 AD-170 AD) believed Jesus was completely divine, only appeared to be human, humanity was an illusion, showed diversity within Christianity because of different beliefs of the trinity

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Manichees

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group of "radical" christians or "heretics" (such as Arians, Nestorians, Donatists, Monophysites), origins in Mesopotamia (c. 3rd century), derived from zorastriansim (5th c.), idea of dualistic view of cosmos: light (ahura mazda) and dark (ahriman), founder= Mani, apostle of Jesus, crucified by Persian authorities in 276/277 CE, direct relation possible between Christ and the soul of the individual, men can be led to God through reason, appealed to Augustine

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Neo-platonism

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school of religious and mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century CE, founded by Plotinus and based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists, Called selves “platonici,” Inclusion of Aristotelian, Pythagorean elements, dualist conception of existence, idealist view opposed to the materialist one held by the Stoics and Epicureans, Augustine

Plotinus (c. 204-270 CE): Egyptian Greek, Studies in Alexandria; Wanderings in Persia; Settles in Rome (244 CE)

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Hortensius

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the name of a lost dialogue by Cicero, which Augustine of Hippo says (in Confessiones) turned him to the way of philosophy, Augustine seduced by search for wisdom, as portrayed by Cicero, No longer satisfied with just speaking well, Prompts his so-called first religious conversion in 373 CE

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Hypostases

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"standing under", Neo-platonic understanding of existence, Based on States of Being/Existence, In Ascending Order:
Matter
Soul/souls (1)
Intellect/intellects (2)
One(3)

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"On Beauty"

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1st Ennead, 6th Tractate (collection of writings of Plotinus), central question: what is beauty?, possible answers: symmetry?,

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Ambrose

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c. between 337 and 340 – 4 April 397), bishop of Milan, saint, influenced Augustine's falling away from the Manichees, Introduction to Ambrose through patron, Aurelius Symmachus of Milan, Becomes familiar with Neo-Platonic ideas through Ambrose’s sermons

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coloni

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tenant farmers in Roman Empire, when taxes increased, farmers took money from coloni forcing them to move to cities like Rome, effects of economic downturn in Roman empire which led to its fall, during later economic reforms under Diocletian (284-305 CE): took money from coloni

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curiales

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collected taxes, equivalent to senators from Rome, collected too much taxes= pocket money, with economic downturn= curiales reach into own pockets to pay taxes when farms shut down, etc, led to alienation of curiales and the collapse of the Roman empire

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tetrarchy

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administrative re-organization, occured during Diocletian's rule (284-305 CE), 4 emperors divide empire into east and west- East= Augustus (capital= Nicomedia), West= another Augustus (capitol= Rome), 2 Caesars in east and west (emperor for that area), separation of civilians and military (less possible for a coup to take place)

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Council of Nicaea

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325 CE, decisions about christian doctrine, council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325. The Council was historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, arianism becomes official church doctrine

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Emperor Theodosius I

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Roman Emperor from 379 to 395. Reuniting the eastern and western portions of the empire, Theodosius was the last emperor of both the Eastern and Western Roman Empire, made worship of pagan Gods illegal in 391 CE

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Donatism

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people who accepted worship of pagan gods during Augustine, wanted to be considered priests, believed its not the man but the position that matters, Council of Chalcedon (451 CE)

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vassalage

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In exchange for a fief, a vassal could be required to:
• Provide knights in time of war
• Serve in the lord’s court of law as a judge
• Be called upon to guard castle or escort the lord
• Be called to advise the lord in his/her council

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lay investiture

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secular lords creating their own clergy

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Cluny

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a reform movement beginning at Cluny:
o 910
o Abbots in Cluny eventually controlled about 1,000 other monasteries
o Wanted to establish the religious superiority of clergy over the laity
o Stop secular leaders from interfering in church affairs
o End clerical marriage
o Advocate papal

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Pope Gregory VII

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o excommunication
o Emperor Henry IV
o Only popes can depose bishops
o Pope can depose emperors
o No one can condemn a decision of the Holy See
o Church of Rome has never erred, and as scripture attests, can never err in the future
o No one who opposes the church of Rome can be considered Catholic
o The pope can release the vassals of unjust men from their oaths of loyalty
o Concordat of Worms 1122
• Emperor agrees to no longer appoint bishops
• Pope agrees to allow emperor to grant bishops land (fiefs)

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Pope Innocent III

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o 1198-1216- papacy
o Expanded taxes on laity
o Imposed income tax on clergy
o Used crusade idea to attack heretical Christian movements (the Cathars)
o Recognized the Franciscans and Dominicans

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Just war

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o If war was fought for the right reasons… this was ok with God
o Medieval Christians could look to the old testament for support of violence. I.E. the various examples of the Israelites being called to fight against oppression.

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Quarysh

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dominate tribe/clan in Mecca, dominate group of traders/entrepreneurs, benefit from important trade routes thanks to conflicts between the Sassanids and teh byzantines, in possession of Ka'ba/Kabbah

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Ka'ba/Kabbah

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shrine that contains rock fallen from heaven

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Hijra

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622 CE (1 AH- Anno Hegirae- Muslim calendar), "migration," mecca to Yathrib (later become Medina= "city of the prophet"), persecution of Muhammad and followers

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Hajj

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annual pilgrimage to Mecca to be done at least once if possible, recognition of financial constraints on the individual, 1 of the five pillars of Islam

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Ridda Wars

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"Ridda"= Repudiations, 632-33 CE, military activity necessary for subjugation of those who rejected his authority, triumph of Abu Bakr, division within Islam

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Abbasid Revolution

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(746-750 CE), Dissatisfaction with Umayyad preoccupation with power, wealth, Corruption among Umayyad governors, Military defeats in Central Asia, North Africa, Abbasids triumphant

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Fatimids

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active in North Africa (909 CE), In Baghdad and Mecca (927 and 930), Contributed to fragmentation of Empire

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Hadrian's Wall

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built by Emperor Hadrian during the Pictish revolts (2nd C. CE) to demarcate Roman territories, stop invaders from north, theme of keeping "barbarians" out (Saxons, etc.)

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Danelaw

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eastern coast/region of Britain, 884 CE- Danes create boundaries to instigate peace= Danelaw, Guthrum the Old= King of Danes

King Alfred (871-899)=King of Saxons and other British civilizations united to fight Danes,

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Achlebert of Kent

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1st english christian king, welcomes missionaries, contributes to growth of Christianity, Augustine of Canterbury (a monk in the 8th century) was sent on Gregorian Mission to spread the word and went to Canterbury and became a bishop- converted Achlebert

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comitatus

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unofficial law code for men's behavior, bonds between warriors follow comitatus ideal, Beowulf, band of brothers, idea of honor, kingship, loyalty, in arms for rewards, sacred bonds- moral/ political/ social sense of community

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Medieval

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dark ages before reformation/rebirth (Renaissance) and after fall of Roman Empire, "middle" ages, reached from Scandinavia to North Africa and the Byzantine Empire to England, view of world from religious framework, feudalism- social hierarchies, smaller political system- local, literacy with well educated elite- trying to understand world religiously not philosophically

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Hildegard of Bingen

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1098-1179 CE, woman, "those who pray," tithed to church as teenager, 1/10 children, experienced visions from God- Scivias (know the path of the lord)= believed they justified church doctrines- church liked her, wrote many texts, travelled freely, even wrote about how to abort baby in her med. text books

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Heloise

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1098-1164 CE, affair with Abelard, lived in convent, sophisticated/ reflective, aware of her sexuality

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Semisgul

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muslim, 9th century CE, slave girl, Kurdis Mehmet bought her to Egypt and got her pregnant, law in Cairo says that slaves can't be pregnant, sells her anyway to Egyptian royal family, family returns her to Mehmet when they realize she's pregnant, Mehmet's wife finds out and beats her to abort baby, shows violence, women as objects, Mehmet's wife can't go after Mehmet (patriarchal society) so she goes after Semisgul= women enable their own destruction, example of avg. woman

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The Domesday Book

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record of the great survey of England completed in 1086, executed for William I of England, or William the Conqueror

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Christine de Pisan

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1365-1430 CE, 1st female professional writer in Europe, born in Venice, well educated, bilingual, wrote Book of the City of Lady and Treasures of the City of Ladies- advice on how to live in a male dominated society

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Charlemagne

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768-814, Einhard’s Life of Charlemagne= idealized picture, Expansions= war against Lombards in Italy and Saxons 770s-804- forcefuly converts them, Expedition to Spain= unsuccessful, Spanish March (Song of Roland), Charlemagne kills Roland
Carolingian Empire and relationship with the Papacy- wants to build on old Roman traditions, counts/local governors, give them land to keep them loyal, keeps them in line by the miss domini-“traveling lords”, builds imperial court in Akkan, Protection of Pope Leo III, Romans wants to kick Leo out, Charlemagne helps him, Leo declares     Charlemagne a “new augustus”, coronation by the Pope 800, creates a tension of who put the crown on Charlemagne’s head, who is more powerful?, alliance strengthens both

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Carolingian Renaissance

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education in the monasteries, Alcuin of York (c. 732-804) and the court at Aachen produced new corrected edition of St. Jerome’s Vulgate Bible ,creates the seven liberal arts, trivium: grammar, rhetoric, and logic, latin, quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music, understanding the natural world, preservation and standardization, keeps alive old classical traditions- in particular Christian, hey correct the texts and make people learn Latin, monasteries become centers of learning and teaching, scriptoria, monks copy down manuscripts

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illuminated manuscripts

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royal colors, beautiful artwork that adorns the sacred texts, illuminate gods words, emphasis to reflect glory of gods words, teaching tool, looking at the picture on the text, locked up in treasury of mass, very expensive

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Dhuoda

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(c. 810-850), wife of Bernard, Duke of Septimania-advisor of Charlemagne’s son, Louis, Handbook for Her Warrior Son – advice manual for her son, she is literate-reads and writes, for other mothers to give to sons, shows that knowledgeable about the politics of the day and wants to send Christianity to others

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Hrotsvit

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ca. 935-1003, canoness at the Abbey of Gandersheim, royal patronage of the abbey under Abbess Gerberga I (connected to Ottonian court), Wrote Six Plays, Drama, Poems, and Histories, modeled her ideas on classical roman comedy playwright Terence, link between Roman and medieval drama, Character= Dulcitius-three Christian virgins, Diocletian’s Great Persecution, Governor Dulcitus becomes bafoon of play, celibacy/virginity, martyrdom, role of the body, voice of a woman writer, performance of dramas, they have divine protection, stupidity of the Romans, don’t know the glory of gods

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Scholasticism

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11th to 13th/ 17th century, integrating pagan philosophers with Christianity, attempts to combine ancient philosophy with christian philosophy through the exercise of the faculty of reason, new translations of ancient philosophy/ literature sparked curiosity

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Credo ut intelligam

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“I believe, that I may understand”, using reason to illuminate faith, St. Anselm of Bec (& Canterbury) (1033‐1109): famous for proof of the existence of God, rely on reason to illuminate fate, reason is second to faith

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Bernard of Clairvaux

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French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order, (1090 – August 20, 1153), assisted at the Council of Troyesdenounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the Pope, preach the Second Crusade, Cluny

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Theory of Intentionality

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Peter Abelard, one's intention in committing an act is what can be ethically judged, how do you know if you're a good or bad person? can't pbse it on desires/ attempts, instead look at intentions

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Cathars

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Christian religious sect with dualistic and gnostic elements that appeared in the Languedoc region of France and other parts of Europe in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries, influenced by dualist and, perhaps, Manichaean beliefs, purpose of man's life on Earth was to transcend matter, regarded by church as heretics

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Franciscans

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religious order of men tracing their origin to Francis of Assisi, life of humility, showing forth in his nonviolence, peace, and respect for creation,

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Iconoclasm

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destruction of idols, Emperor Leo II (717-741) orders destruction of all icons, shows effects of arab expansion on Byzantine Empire- muslims don't depict God in icons/ pictures

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Cyril

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missionary w/ Methodus to Slavs in 863, created cyrillic alphabet (used in eastern europe) based on Greek alphabet, develops writing system and converts "barbarians"

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Justinian

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Byzantine Emperor (527-565), expansion of empire (N. Africa, Italy, S. Spain), codification of laws 1. Codex= collection of laws of Roman empire from last 100 yrs., summary of law
2. Digest= collection of all book of roman law, 100 books condensed into 50 books then destroyed all other records
3. Institutes= clarity of law, textbook used for teaching law

roman law developed into easter laws, built Hagia Sophia- wealth continuation from Roman tradition, taxation

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Medieval Agricultural Revolution

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(1050-1250) invention of horseshoes (popularity, increase in pulling capacity), horse collars, heavy wheeled plow with mold board, 3- field system (spring and fall crops), healthier population, growth of population

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Guilds

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organization, regulations, and insurance in merchant and craft guilds, (1050-1250), part of commercial revolution along with growth of towns, the trade fairs of Champagne, trade routes, and urban charters/ communes to establish new towns

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Jury of Presentment

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first jury system under Henry II (1154-1189) (king of northern and southern France), opportunity for citizens to come together and bring accusations themselves, trial by ordeal (Henry doesn't approve, better that the innocent get executed then let guilty go free)

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Investiture Conflict

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(1070-1122) Gregorian reform, Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV, Canossa (1077), Concordat of Worms (1122)= Calixtus II and Henvry V, Gratian's Decretum (c.1140)

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Fourth Lateran Council

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1215, transubstantiation= bread and wine transformed into literal body and blood of christ, convoked by Pope Innocent III, many bishops attended, because of the limited results of the Third Crusade and the bitter results of the Fourth Crusade, which had led to the capture of Constantinople and large parts of the Byzantine Empire

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“Dwarves on the Shoulders of Giants”

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Western metaphor meaning "One who develops future intellectual pursuits by understanding the research and works created by notable thinkers of the past", attributed to Bernard of Chartres, old testament as foundation for new testament

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Integumentum

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secular writings can be interpreted to reveal Christian truth., part of intellectual revolution, rise of cathdral schools, origins of universities- discovery of Aristotle, scholasticism

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fin’amor

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"true/ pure love," courtly love= medieval European conception of nobly and chivalrously expressing love and admiration.[1] Generally, courtly love was secret and between members of the nobility.[2] It was also generally not practiced between husband and wife, "a love at once illicit and morally elevating, passionate and disciplined, humiliating and exalting, human and transcendent"

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troubadour

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lyrics poet, texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love, ex. Arnault Daniel

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Proofs of Existence of God

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St. Anselm (1033-1109)
• The ontological proof of the existence of God
• Conviction that we could rely on reason to illuminate faith
• “Nor do I seek to understand, in order that I may believe; but I believe, that I may understand.”
• Belief in god was preliminary, but you could use powers of reason to prove God’s existence

Thomas Aquinas (1225‐1274)
• Dominican Friar
• Aquinas’ Scholastic Method of Inquiry
• Question: is there any necessity for reliance on any authorities beyond the philosophical disciplines?
• False Claim and Initial Defense of False Claim
• Further Defense of False Claim
• True Counterclaim
o [But on the contrary…]
o Opense typically with an appeal to countervailing ancient authority (usually, not always, church father or scripture)
• Defense of True Claim
• Rebuttal of Defenses of False Claim
o (To the first argument it must be said that)
• Motivated by comments like Abelard’s: that nothing could be believed unless it was first understood

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Nicole Oresme

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Nicole Oresme (1323-1382)
Among his accomplishments,
he invented a system of coordinate geometry nearly three centuries before Descartes, and anticipated
(or revived?) a number of Copernicus’s arguments two centuries earlier than Copernicus

Basically said that it was very likely that the earth rotated once every twenty four hours and not the 'sphere of the heavens'. Stated that it was much more likely that a much smaller orb like the Earth could rotate once every twenty four hours instead of the whole sphere of the heavens. Refuted arguments against this (such as "if the earth is turning that fast why don't we fall off? or why then does an arrow that you shoot into the air not land west of you because of the turning of the planet? or why isn't there always a wind from the east?) by giving an example of being on a boat. If you are in the cabin of the boat then the air around you isn't whipping around because it is contained and moving along with you, just like the Earth's atmosphere.
He also described that motion is all relevant to the position from which one is looking, saying that if one stood on an orb on the sphere of heaven (or vault of the sky) and saw the earth (if the sphere of heaven indeed turned and not the earth) it would appear that the earth was orbiting the place you were. He uses the example of two ships. If you are on the faster of the two ships and overtake the other, it could be perceived even that the other was going backwards.

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Condemnation of 1277

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On 18 January 1277, Pope John XXI instructed Bishop Tempier to investigate the complaints of the theologians. "Not only did Tempier investigate but in only three weeks, on his own authority, he issued a condemnation of 219 propositions drawn from many sources, including, apparently, the works of Thomas Aquinas, some of whose ideas found their way onto the list."[10] The list published on 7 March condemned a great number of "errors", some of which emanated from the astrology, and others from the philosophy of the Peripatetics.[9] These included:

* 9. "That there was no first man, nor will there be a last; on the contrary, there always was and always will be generation of man from man."[11]
* 49. "That God could not move the heavens with rectilinear motion; and the reason is that a vacuum would remain."[11]
* 87. "That the world is eternal as to all the species contained in it; and that time is eternal, as are motion, matter, agent, and recipient; and because the world is from the infinite power of God, it is impossible that there be novelty in an effect without novelty in the cause."[11]

The penalty for anyone teaching or listening to the listed errors was excommunication, "unless they turned themselves in to the bishop or the chancellor within seven days, in which case the bishop would inflict proportionate penalties."[1] The condemnation sought to stop the Master of Arts teachers from interpreting the works of Aristotle in ways that were contrary to the beliefs of the Church. In addition to the 219 errors, the condemnation also covered Andreas Capellanus's De amore, and unnamed or unidentified treatises on geomancy, necromancy, witchcraft, or fortunetelling.[1]

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Andreas Capellanus

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the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love"), and often known in English, somewhat misleadingly, as The Art of Courtly Love, though its realistic, somewhat cynical tone suggests that it is in some measure an antidote to courtly love. De Amore was written at the request of Marie de Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine. A dismissive allusion in the text to the "wealth of Hungary" has suggested the hypothesis that it was written after 1184.

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Contrapasso

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An exemplary contrapasso can be found in XXVIII, in which the decapitated Bertran de Born declares: "Così s'osserva in me lo contrapasso" (XXVIII, 142)[1] which Longfellow translates: "Thus is observed in me the counterpoise"[2] For boasting that he had more intelligence than he needed, he appears in this canto as a man whose head has been separated from his body.

Basically: you are punished by means of the same thing for which you are being punished.
i.e. if you were a hoarder in life, you would be forced to carry around all the money you hoarded in life as a constant reminder that you had more than necessary, giving you too much of the thing you so much liked.

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Fourth Lateran Council

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1. Set up doctrine of transubstantiation
a. When the priest elevates the host, they are transformed into the literal body and blood of Christ
2. Creation of inquisition to seek out heresy
3. Primacy of Church of Rome
4. Each cathedral operate a school
5. All clerics live continently and chastely
6. Remove clerics from trial by ordeal
7. Annual mass and confession
8. Forbid lay taxation of clergy
9. Strict prohibition of marriage in 4th degree
10. Seven sacraments
11. No charge for sacraments
12. Jews and muslims must wear distinctive dress

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Henry II

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(5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189)
On 18 May 1152, at Poitiers, at the age of 19, Henry married Eleanor of Aquitaine. The wedding was "without the pomp or ceremony that befitted their rank," partly because only two months previously Eleanor's marriage to Louis VII of France had been annulled. Their relationship, always stormy eventually died: after Eleanor encouraged her children to rebel against their father in 1173, Henry had her placed under house arrest, where she remained for fifteen years.
Father of King Richard (couer de leon)

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penis

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the thing that goes in the vagina or mouth.

sometimes ear.

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Battle of Manzikert

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The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26, 1071 near Manzikert (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). It resulted in one of the most decisive defeats of the Byzantine Empire and the capture of the Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes.[5] The Battle of Manzikert played an important role in breaking the Byzantine resistance and preparing the way for Turkish settlement in Anatolia.[6]

The battle marked the high point of the initial Turkish incursions and was followed up two years later with a large influx of Turkish settlers and soldiers into Anatolia.

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Sir Gawain

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Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, King Arthur's nephew and a Knight of the Round Table who appears very early in the Arthurian legend's development, a formidable but brash warrior, fiercely loyal to his king and family. He is a friend to young knights, a defender of the poor, and a consummate ladies' man, he is an important character in most of Chrétien de Troyes' romances, functioning as a model of chivalry to whom the protagonist is compared and contrasted. His role in the unfinished Perceval, the Story of the Grail

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Hagia Sophia

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Constantinople)- 533-38, under Justinian and Theodora, mosaics, domes, hall shape/ long rectangular, portrayal of emperor, church until 1453 when it became a mosque- relevance in both christianity and islam

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Autun tympanum

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("Gislebertus hoc fecit"- “Gilbert made this”- sculptor takes credit on tympanum)- famous tympanum= judgement of Christ (right= those who are saved, right= Dante’s Inferno)- as you enter church you are reminded to confess sins/ avoid Hell

Main theme of tympanums (above the doorway as you enter church): Last Judgment*- repeated theme, (right= those who are saved, right= Dante’s Inferno)- as you enter church you are reminded to confess sins/ avoid Hell, contrast between chaos and order in Hell and Heaven, “mouth of hell”, demons

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Royal Portals at Chartres

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theme of tympanums (3)= earliest representation of different subjects in tympanums- christ in glory, creation of world, mary as wise figure with Christ in middle, pagan philosophers (Aristotle), 7 liberal arts (dialectic- representation of “logic”)

transitional church, rounded arches on outside but also has pointed arches

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The Fourth Crusade

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The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and conquered the Christian (Eastern Orthodox) city of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. This is seen as one of the final acts in the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church. Puts Constantinople under control of West

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Religion of Love

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The medieval chivalric concept of "worshipping" the beloved. Women were made to be thought of as an ennobling force, possibly an allusion to The Virgin Mary. Encouraged to believe that they were unworthy of their female patron. "adore" is from the latin "ore" (to pray)

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Temperance

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the practice of moderation. It was one of the four "cardinal" virtues held to be vital to society in Hellenic culture. It is one of the Four Cardinal Virtues considered central to Christian behaviour by the Catholic Church and is an important tenet of the moral codes of other world religions—for example, it is one of the Five Precepts of Buddhism.