Western Civilization: Early Modern Europe

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Early Modern Europe: Baroque Art and Architecture

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The form of art and architecture of the early 17th century is known as Baroque, which is generally characterized by its dramatic, often flamboyant, qualities ! their works have a sensuous quality that exploits light and shadow for rich, emotional effects ! style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. ! The theatricality of Baroque art was represented in music by the new form known as opera Baroque architecture emphasizes grandiose designs with rich ornamentation, and its sculpture has a passionate, even histrionic quality, as demonstrated in Ecstasy of St. Teresa (Bernini 1598 – 1660) Mannerism: The path to Baroque painting, as represented by Velazques (1599-1660), was blazed by the school known as Mannerism, whose dramatic qualities are demonstrated by: El Greco (1541 – 1614) Dutch Masters of Baroque Painting: * Rubens (1577-1640) * Rembrandt (1606-1669)

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Early Modern Europe: Francis Bacon

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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, and essayist. Known as a catalyst of the scientific revolution. Inductive method, empirical method: Although not a scientist but a statesman, Bacon’s theoretical writings advanced the cause of science by downplaying the traditional deductive method of reasoning (which begins with general premises and draws conclusions about particulars), and advocating the inductive method (which begins with particulars and draws general conclusions). The inductive method became the basic procedure of the new science. A lso advocated the empirical method, which emphasized the importance of conducting experiments in order to provide accurate data for induction.

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Balance of Trade

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(or net exports, sometimes symbolized as NX) is the difference between the monetary value of exports and imports of commodities in an economy over a certain period of time.

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Early Modern Europe: Vasco Núñez de Balboa

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He is best known for having crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the (discovered the) Pacific Ocean in 1513 Spanish explorer, governor, and conquistador. He is best known for having crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513, becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World.

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Early Modern Europe: Giovanni Bernini

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(1598 – 1680) Pre-eminent Baroque sculptor and architect of 17th century Rome. (Baroque sculpture has a passionate, even histrionic quality, as demonstrated in) Ecstasy of St. Teresa http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Estasi_di_Santa_Teresa.jpg central marble group of a sculpture complex designed and completed by Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini for the Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. It is one of the sculptural masterpieces of High Roman Baroque. In the arts, the Baroque (pronounced /bər'rɒk/) was a Western cultural epoch, commencing roughly at the turn of the 17th century in Rome, Italy. It was exemplified by drama and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music.[not in citation given]

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Early Modern Europe: Jean Bodin

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The rise of the centralized monarchies and the wars they wage inspired political thinkers to explore new theories of power – although many defended absolute monarchy with the doctrine ofo the divin right o kings, non-religious arguments for absolutism were put forward by the French philosopher Jean Bodin and the English philosopher Thomas Hobbs “Republic” (De la République): Bodin argued that the king of each nation should have to answer to no one – whether the Holy Roman Emperor, the Pope, or his own people – and that he should not be bound by laws, although he should govern in accordance with natural law French jurist and political philosopher, member of the Parliment (not to be confused with the English Parliament) of Paris and professor of Law in Toulouse. He is best known for his theory of sovereignty. His books divided opinion: some French writers were full of praise, while the later Scottish philosopher, Francis Hutchinson was his detractor, criticising his methodology.

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Early Modern Europe: Tycho Brahe

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Danish nobleman famed for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. Hailing from Scania, now part of modern-day Sweden, Brahe was well known in his lifetime as an astrologer and alchemist. Copernicus’s theory of circular orbits was not correct either, and problems with the heliocentric model were not resolved until Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) discovered, on the basis of the precise observations collected by TB, that planetary orbits are not circular, but elliptical. This refined heliocentric theory was then popularized by Galileo Galilei.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: John Cabot

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Italian navigator and explorer commonly credited as the first European to discover North America, in 1497, notwithstanding Norseman Leif Ericson's landing (c. 1003). The Canadian and United Kingdom government's official position is that he landed on the island of Newfoundland. In 1497, Henry VIII hired an Italian mariner, John Cabot to seek a direct route to Asia in the northern hemisphere – however, no English expedion circumnavigated the globoe until 1577-1580, where Sir Francis Drake landed on the west coast of North America and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Pedro Cabral

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Portuguese navigator and explorer. Generally regarded as the European discoverer of Brazil 1500 – Pedro Cabral claimed Brazil – the only Portugese territory in the New World

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: Cannons

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The centralization of power was aided by new technologies, such as the canon, which greatly shortened the length of sieges and led to major changes in military strategies and tactics The Ottoman Turks were able to beat down the walls of Constantinople for the first time using cannons in 1453, and European monarchs used cannons against rebellious nobles, who could no longer hide within their castles Cannons were also a vital ingredient of naval power, which made possible the rise and defense of vast overseas empires

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Jacques Cartier

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! Discovered and claimed Canada for France. ! Leading French explorer (1491-1557) – like John Cabot, sought a northwest passage to the Far East ! Explored the St. Lawrence River valley, which France later colonized The first who described and mapped[1] the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River, which he named "The Country of Canada(s)", as was so called both Iroquoian big settlements he saw in Stadaconna (Quebec City) and in Hochelaga (Montreal Island).

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: France: Samuel de Champlain:

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"the father of New France", Founded a trading post in 1609 which later became Quebec City Colonization in New France did not gain momentum until about 1650 A sailor, he also came to be respected as a talented navigator, a cartographer, and the founder of Quebec City. Was also integral in opening North America to French trade, especially the fur trade. Champlain's pattern was to spend several months or years managing, and exploring North America, and then head back to France to raise more funds (doing lobbying, and reporting, publishing…) for further explorations (to find some mines, and the way to China…) and for the colonization.

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Early Modern: Miguel de Cervantes

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(1547 – 1616) (The religious and political transformations of the 16th and 17th centuries coincide with perhaps even more momentous changes in its thought and culture Don Quixote: The finest Spanish response to the crisis presented by the clash of world views was the satirical novel Don Quixote Depicts an idealistic nobleman who finds that chivalry is useless in the modern world Cervante’s own life in some ways mirrored that of his protagonist Motivated by idealistic impulses, he fought at the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571) but found that crusading was no longer truly appreciated in his society, which had become mercilessly pragmatic

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Entrepeneurial Class: Jacques Coeur

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French merchant and banker, ennobled by King Charles VI and received a position of great influence in the government of Charles VII; Was prevented from founding a dynasty, however, when envious courtiers plotted his downfall * One of the founders of the trade between France and the Levant.

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Early Modern Europe: Early Spanish Exploration: Christopher Columbus

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After the early successes of Portugal, the Spanish realized the potential for wealth that exploration could generate and became anxious to prevent their Iberian rival from dominating this trade. In 1492, Ferdinande and Isabella decided to fund a voyage by the Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1504) , who claimed he could find a direct westeren route to the Far East without having to sail around Africa Columbus had miscalculated the circumference of the earth and had no idea that massive continents barred the way – when he discovered the Caribbean islads (West Indies) and Central America, he thought he had reached Asia Columbus established contact with the natives in four voyages, the last ending in 1504 Though not the first to reach the Americas from Afro-Eurasia — preceded some five hundred years by Leif Ericson, and perhaps by others — Columbus initiated widespread contact between Europeans and indigenous Americans. With his several hapless attempts at establishing a settlement on the island of Hispaniola, he personally initiated the process of Spanish colonization which foreshadowed general European colonization of the "New World."

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Changing Markets

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The flexibility of the entrepreneurs was a key ingredient of their success They were able to discern where money could be made and invested heavily in an industry for which there was high demand In addition to overseas imports, these include shipbuilding, printing ,mining, and metallurgy (to satisfy the demand for cannons) Once profit was made in one of these industries, it could be invested in another industry as capital for a diversified financial empire The entrepreneurial spirit of taking advantage of supply and demand in order to maximize profits also affected agriculture, accelerating the specialization of production (a development that had already begun in the Middle Ages) In 16th-century England, lands that were once shared by peasants for common use were bought up by rich men and converted into pastures, a process known as the “enclosure” movement” since the pastures were fenced off, or “enclosed” to prevent their use by peasants and promote specialization

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Commodities

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Spices were the most common import during the earlier phase of colonialism By 1650, however, the European market was glutted with spices, decreasing the profits Traders responded by diversifying imports to include more cotton fabrics, silk, coffee and tea Slaves were also imported from Africa, beginning around 1450 The salve trade to Europe was relatively modest – although Portugal and Spain imported African slaves for agricultural labor, most European nations had little need of such help Entrepreneurs did, however, purchase slaves for use in the colonies of the New World

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Entrepreneurial Class

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"Wealth from the new commercial ventures tended to be concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of people, the entrepreneurs - individuals who risked capital in order to turn a profit The most successful entrepreneurs diversified their investments once they established themselves and commanded financial empires with branch offices in major cities throughout Europe They often founde dynasties that established themselves as part ofa new aristocracy of wealth The Medici, for example, married into the French royal family and were mad grand dukes of Tuscany in the 16th century A French merchant and banker named Jacques Coeur was ennobled by King Charles VI and received a position of great influence in the government of Charles VII The most successful of the entrepreneurial families were the Fuggers of Augsburg, who began as cloth merchants and came to dominate mining in central Europe -

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Gathering-in system

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This early form of the factory system was used in the boom industries of shipbuilding, printing, and iron-founding (for the manufacture of cannons) Entrepreneurs would gather works to a single place where specialized tools for production were located and supervise them, thereby decreasing the cost of transportation and controlling quality

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Decline of the Guilds

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The transformation of economics, with the new emphasis on the private ownership of the means of production, sounded a death knell for the guilds Craftsman using traditional techniques of production could not supply the volume of goods that were demanded by the 16th –century economy Entrepreneurs worked around the guilds using two methods, known as the “putting-out system” and the “gathering-in system” Although these changes in the means of production made entrepreneurs extremely wealthy and met demands for certain products, they had negative consequences in the dislocation of workers and disintegration of social norms

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Inflation

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As gold and silver poured into Europe via Portugal and Spain, the vast increase in quantities of precious metals caused runaway inflation, quadrupling prices between 1500 and 1600 Since wages did not rise equally, poverty became widespread and many people became vagrants Nobles also suffered, since their income was based on fixed rents, which lost values as prices rose

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Joint-Stock Companies

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To finance the risky ventures of long-distance commerce, investors began to organize in associations known as “joint-stock companies” These evolved from “regulated companies”, which were associations of professional traders Both regulated companies and joint-stock companies were supported by governments, which granted monopolies in specific areas of commerce Unlike regulated companies, joint-stock companies were associations of investors who bought shares in a business but entrusted the business itself to professionals By pooling their financial resources, investors protected themselves against losses that could easily ruin them if they operated independently, and they were guaranteed a share of any profits Although at first joint-stock companies focused on trade, they were later also used in industry An early joint-stock company, known as the Russia Company, was sponsored by England in 1553 Other English joint-stock companies included the East India Company and Bank of England The Netherlands sponsored the highly lucrative Dutch West India Company (1621) for trade in the New World and Africa

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Joint-Stock Companies: East India Company

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The Honourable East India Company (HEIC), most commonly referred to as the East India Trading Company, though often colloquially referred to as "John Company", and simply as the East India Company[1] or the "Company Bahadur" in India An early joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). The company's main trade was in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, tea and also opium. It was granted an English Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intention of favouring trade privileges in India.

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Mercantilism

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Kings recognized that the strength of their state depended on the strength of their economy, so they often intervened in the activity of the entrepreneurs State intervention in economics is known as mercantilism – its central principle was the belief that the wealth of a nation is defined by the quantity of precious metals located within its borders To keep as much gold and silver as possible within the nation, kings sought to maintain a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports of commodities) Therefore they raised tariffs to discourage the purchase of foreign goods They also sought to reduce internal trade barriers, such as tolls, in order to encourage trade within the nation’s borders An important feature of mercantilism was the exploitation of overseas emprise through colonies, which served as sources of cheap raw materials and favorable markets for exported products

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: New World Exploration

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The exploitation of the New World accelerated the evolution of economic life in Europe, resulting in dramatic changes that culminated in the rise of capitalism ~ 1500 the principal financial centers were Venice, Lisbon, and Madrid; Venice had long been the leader of commerce, whereas Lisbon and Madrid rose to prominence suddenly on the strength of their overseas imperialism By the year 1600, however, the centers of finance had shifted to London, Paris and Amsterdam as England, France and the Netherlands developed new methods of economic organization to exploit the trade stimulated by overseas discoveries

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Putting-Out System

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The use of unskilled labor, controlled by entrepreneurs, had already appeared toward the end of the Middle Ages in the textile industry Entrepreneurs would buy wool and hire peasants to specialize in various stages of its manufacture into cloth: spinning the wool into thread, weaving the thread into cloth, and finally dyeing the cloth; the entrepreneur would then transport the thread to the weavers and the cloth to other dyers before selling the finished product on the market

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Regulated Companies

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Regulated companies: associations of professional traders Both regulated companies and joint-stock companies were supported by governments, which granted monopolies in specific areas of commerce Unlike regulated companies, joint-stock companies were associations of investors who bought shares in a business but entrusted the business itself to professionals

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Conquistadors

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Spain sent adventurers known as conquistadors, or “conquerors” to explorer the New World and claim it in the name of the Spanish Monarchy In Central and South America they came up against great empires and overthrew them by using the superior technology of firearms The natives were also felled by disease that Europeans brought with them, against which they had no immunity Hernando Cortez conquered the Inca Empire in Peru (1532-1533) Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in Peru (1532 – 1533) The conquistadors seized the gold and silver of these empires and sent it back to Spain Later (~1550), silver was mined in Mexico and especially Bolivia (at Potosi)

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Conquistadors: Hernando Cortez

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Hernando Cortez conquered the Inca Empire in Peru (1532-1533) * Spanish conquistador who initiated the conquest of the Aztec Empire on behalf of Charles V, king of Castile and Holy Roman Emperor, in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.[1] Because of the controversial undertakings of Cortés and the scarcity of reliable sources of information about him, it has become difficult to assert anything definitive about his personality and motivations. Early lionizing of the conquistadors did not encourage deep examination of Cortés. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors' character in the context of modern anti-colonial sentiment and greatly expanded concern for human rights, as typified by the Black Legend, also did little to expand our understanding of Cortés as an individual. As a result of these historical trends, descriptions of Cortés tend to be simplistic, and either damning or idealizing.

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Early Modern Europe: Astronomy: Nicolaus Copernicus

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First astronomer to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. His epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres: applied the principle of logical economy (Ockham’s Razor)), is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution. Copernicus concluded that the heliocentric theory better explained the observed motions of the planets than did the geocentric model, which required a complicated system of imaginary epicycles Yet Copernicus’s theory of circular orbits was not correct either, and problems with the heliocentric model were not resolved until Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered, on the basis of the precise observations collecde by Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601), that planetary orbits are not circular but elliptical (this refined heliocentric theory was then popularized by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

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Early Modern Europe: England: Civil War: Oliver Cromwell

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"After initial royal victories, the parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell captured the king and abolished the monarchy – Charles was beheaded •

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Years War: Defenestration of Prague

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The people of Bohemia, who were mostly Protestant, revolted in 1618 against their Catholic Hapsburg ruler and threw two imperial ministers out of a window in an act known as the Defenestration of Prague The conflict that ensued came to be known as the 30 Year’s War (1618-1648), which occurred in four major phases * At Prague Castle on May 23, 1618, an assembly of Protestants, led by Count Thurn, tried two Imperial governors, Vilem Slavata of Chlum (1572–1652) and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice (1582–1649), for violating the Letter of Majesty (Right of Freedom of Religion), found them guilty, and threw them, together with their scribe Philip Fabricius, out of the high windows of the Bohemian Chancellery. They landed on a large pile of manure in a dry moat and survived. Philip Fabricius was later ennobled by the emperor and granted the title von Hohenfall (lit. meaning "of Highfall"). Roman Catholic Imperial officials claimed that the three men survived due to the mercy of angels assisting the righteousness of the Catholic cause. Protestant pamphleteers asserted that their survival had more to do with the horse excrement in which they landed than the benevolent acts of the angels.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Later Spanish Exploration: Hernando De Soto

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Explored Florida and the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, where he died in 1542 (c. 1496–1542) * Spanish explorer and conquistador who, while leading the first European expedition to the territory of the modern-day United States, was the first European to discover the Mississippi River. A vast undertaking, de Soto's expedition ranged throughout the southeastern United States searching for gold and a passage to China. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River at present-day Lake Village, Arkansas. In 1530, de Soto became a regidor of León, Nicaragua, and led an expedition up the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula searching for passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean in order to trade Spain's New World fortunes with the Orient, the richest market in the world. Failing that, and without means to further explore, de Soto, upon Dávila' death, left his estates in Nicaragua and joined Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Peru in 1532.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Bartholomew Diaz

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1488: crossed the equator, sailed to the southern tip of Africa, and rounded the Cape of Good Hope Nobleman of the Royal Household, was a Portuguese explorer who sailed around the western tip of Africa in 1488, the first European known to have done so.

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Early Modern Europe: Political Theory: Divine Right of Kings

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The rise of the centralized monarchies and the wars they waged inspired political thinkers to explore new theories of power Althought many defended absolute monarchy with the doctrine fo the divin right of kings, non-religious arguments for absolutism were put forward by the French philosopher: Jean Bodin (1530 – 1596) English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ( 1588-1679) Bodin argued in his Republic (1576) that the king of each nation should have to answer to no one – whether the Holy Roman Emperor, the Pope, or his own people – and that he should not be bound by laws, although he should govern in accordance with natural law Hobbes argued in the Leviathan (1651) that human life in the “state of nature” is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”, and that the only hope for establishing order is to obey an absolute monarch, who serves as the head of the body politic Hobbe’s attitude reflects the chaos that arose during the English Civil War Another philosopher who wrote in response to the chaos of his age was Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), who used natural law to outline principles for international relations (including a theory of the just war) in his book On the Law of War and Peace (1625)

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Early Modern Europe: Literature: Don Quixote

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* most influential work of literature to emerge from the Spanish Golden Age and perhaps the entire Spanish literary canon. As a founding work of modern Western literature, it regularly appears at the top of lists of the greatest works of fiction ever published. “ The finest Spanish response to the crisis presented by the clash of world views was the satirical novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) It depicts an idealistic nobleman who finds that chivalry is useless in the modern world Cervante’s own life in some ways mirrored that of his protagonist Motivated by idealistic impulses, he fought at the naval Battel of Lepanto (1571) but found that crusading was no longer truly appreciated in his society, which had mercilessly pragmatic. The novel's structure is in episodic form. It is a humorous novel in the picaresco style of the late sixteenth century. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as ingenioso (Span.) means "to be quick with inventiveness".[2] Although the novel is farcical, the second half is serious and philosophical about the theme of deception. Quixote has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but in much of later art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck, and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book’s publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is unintentionally forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, truth, veracity, and even nationalism. In going beyond mere storytelling to exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped move beyond the narrow literary conventions of the chivalric romance literature that he spoofed, which consists of straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Sir Francis Drake

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"No English expedition circumnavigated the globe until 1577-1580, when Sir Francis Drake landed on the west coast of North America and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth Drake brought back a cargo of spices and treasure he had raided from Spanish shipping; upon his return he was knighted aboard his flagship, the Golden Hind He later served as governor of English colonies in North America and as a member of Parliament •

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Joint Stock Companies: Dutch East India / Dutch West India Companies

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DEI: 1602: for trade in Asia DWI: 1621: trade in the New World and Africa Established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. In addition, the VOC possessed quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Entrepreneurial Class

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Wealth from the new commercial ventures tended to be concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of people, the entrepreneurs – individuals who risked capital in order to turn profit The most successful entrepreneurs diversified their investments once they had established themselves and commanded financial empires with branch offices in major cities throughout Europe The often founded dynasties that established themselves as part of a new aristocracy of wealth The Medici, for example married into the French royal family and were made grand dukes of Tuscany in the 16th century The most successful of the entrepreneurial families were the Fuggers of Augsburg, who began as cloth merchants and came to dominate mining in central Europe The served as bankers for the Hapsburgs and thus wielded great political influence

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Decline of the Guilds

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The transformation of economics, with the new emphasis on the private ownership of the means of production, sounded a death knell for the guilds Craftsmen using traditional techniques of production could not supply the volume of goods that were demanded by the 16th-century economy Entrepreneurs worked around the guilds using 2 methods, known as the “putting-out system” and the “gathering-in system”. Although these changes in the means of production made entrepreneurs extremely and met demands for certain products, they had negative consequences in the dislocation of workers and disintegration of social norms.

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Early Modern Europe: Dutch Independence

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The Dutch revolt that began in 1566, and was led by William the Silent between 1572 and 1584, continued for about 80 years before the independence of the Netherlands was recognized In 1579 the northern Dutch provinces formed the Union of Utrech, which formally declared independence in 1584 and become the core of the Dutch Republic of United Provinces Spanish troops were expelled by 1600, and a truce halted fighting between 1609 and 1621 Treaty of Westphalia: After a revival of the conflict, Spain finally recognized Dutch sovereignty in 1648 through the Treaty of Westphalia In the meantime, the Dutch had come a world power and commanded a fleet greater than the fleets of all the other European nations They took advantage of Philip II’s conquest of Portugal (1580) to seize Portugeze colonies in the far East and take over the spice trade, on which they exercised a near monopoly The eastern commerce was controlled by the Dutch East India Company, a joint-stock company formed in 1602 and run by the United Provinces It was later joined by the Dutch West India Company, which was active in North America, where in 1624 it founded New Amsterdam at the mouth of the Hudson (later New York City)

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: Elizabeth I

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After a brief attempt by Mary I Tudor (1553-1558) to forcibly restore Catholicism, England became more fully Protestant In 1559, Parliament passed the Act of Uniformity, which established the ceremonies of the Anglican Church and the Book of Common Prayer Thirty-Nine Articles: In 1563, it passed the Thirty-Nine Articles, which outlined the nation’s theological stance Elizabeth I (1558-1603) tried to establish a moderate religious position, but faced severe challenges to here religious reforms In 1569 she repressed a Catholic uprising, and in 1587 executed her cousin Mary, the exiled Queen of Scots, for her involvement in a Catholic plot Yet Elizabeth also opposed the Puritans, religious extremists who wanted to eliminate all vestiges of Catholicism Her moderate position is summed up in here refusal “to make windows into men’s souls,” by which she meant that she respected private dissent as long as it did not express itself in open opposition

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: The Spanish Armada

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When Elizabeth came to power in 1558, she was forced to abandon the city of Calais, last of England’s holdings on the Continent, following Mary I’s disastrous war against France Elizabeth’s foreign policy was dominated by her efforts to aid Protestants against their Catholic monarchs, including Scotland, France, and the Netherlands Her aid for the Dutch rebellion against Spain (1585-1587) provoked Philip II to send the Spanish Armada against England in 1588, but this grand fleet was destroyed by a storm (called the “Protestant wind”) and the formidable English fleet, whose vessels were smaller but more maneuverable and could fire cannonballs faster than the larger but slower Spanish galleons The victory over the Spanish Armada boosted English nationalism and made possible the rise of the British Empire

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: The Stuarts

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Elizabeth I strengthened the English monarchy by cooperating with Parliament and tactfully establishing their respective spheres of power However, she never married, and her failure to produce an heir ended the Tudor dynasty The rules of succession gave the crown of England to the Stuart dynasty of Scotland, whose tactless treatment of Parliament led to the English Civil War (1642 – 49) Both James I (1603-1625) and his son, Charles I (1625 – 1649) maintained the doctrine of the divine right of kings, by which they claimed their power came directly from God rather than from the people James used his supreme authority in matters of religion to persecute Catholics (provoking Guy Fawke’s failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605) and to authorize the translation of the Bible known as the King James Version (1611) Charles, on the other hand, was suspected of Catholic sympathies, having married the Catholic princess of France, Henrietta Maria, as part of an alliance against Spain. Both James and Charles suffered from budgetary difficulties, for Parliament expressed its opposition to their reigns by approving less money than they required meeting expenses In response, they both tried to raise funds without parliamentary approval Although Parliament challenged James’s right to raise customs duties, the courts upheld his authority to do so and thus cleared the way for Charles to raise money by various means, including income from royal property, the sale of monopolies, the levying of ship money, and forced loans In 1628 Parliament protested the forced loans through the Petition of Right, to which Charles responded by dismissing Parliament and ruling without them for 11 years (1629-1640) Charles’s measures to raise money were sufficient to meet expenses as long as there was no war, but when Scotland invaded northern England to protest the use of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, Charles called Parliament to approved funds for the defense of the realm

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: Civil War (1642-1649)

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The Long Parliament (1640 – 1653) immediately instituted a series of reforms that weakened the monarchy It passed an act requiring the king to summon Parliament at least every 3 years, outlawed all forms of taxation without parliamentary approval, and abolished special courts, such as the Court of the Star Chamber Soon the Puritans tried to push through their radical agenda of church reform, published the Great Remonstrance detailing grievances against Charles, and demanded control of the army Charles became impatient and entered the House of Commons with an armed escort in order to arrest 5 men for treason Later he refused the radical measures demanded in Parliament’s 19 Propositions (1642) The country drifted into civil war, with Roundheads supporting Parliament and Cavaliers supporting the king After initial royal victories, the parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell captured the king and abolished the monarchy – Charles was beheaded

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration

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During the R & R, Europeans were embarking upon naval expeditions that looked beyond the confines of their world The leaders in these voyages of discovery were the Portugese and Spanish, who sometimes hired Italian captains

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Prince Henry the Navigator

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A Portuguese prince known as Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) gave the first major impetus to exploration by funding voyages of discovery and establishing a school for navigation at Sagres, which included an observatory He also made improvements in shipbuilding, and the caravel was adopted as the favored vessel for exploration Henry’s motives reflected military, religious, and economic concerns His patronage of exploration began after he participated in the 1415 capture of Ceuta, a Muslim stronghold in North Africa across from the Srait of Gibraltar He hoped that a more precise knowledge of African geography would help Christian forces to outflank the Muslims and thus gain a strategic advantage over them He also hoped to make contact with a legendary figure name Prester John, who was rumored to rule a Christian kingdom in distant lands (possibly Ethiopia) More realistically, Henry thought to discover and convert pagans who lived on the edge of Muslim territories, thereby combining religious with military motives Finally, Henry hoped to find deposits of gold and to generate wealth for Portugal by establishing a trade route to the Indies that could bypass the Med, which was dominated by the Italians and Turks

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Portuguese Exploration

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With the support of Prince Henry, Portugese explorers discovered the Azores, Canary and Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and followed the African coast as far as Sierra Leone near the equator They established a lucrative trade in gold, ivory and slaves In 1488 Bartholomew Diaz crossed the equator, sailed to the southern tip of Africa, and rounded the Cape of Good Hope In 1497-1499 Vasco da Gama sailed to Indea and back, opening a trade route for spices and other luxury goods In 1509-1515 Alfonso de Albuquerque established Portuguese trading posts along west coast of India, the islands of Indonesia, and at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, thereby laying the foundations of the Portuguese Empire in the east, which was linked back to the capital of Lisbon through trading posts that dotted the African coast In 1500 Pedro Cabral claimed Brazil – the only Portuguese territory in the New World

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

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Soon after Columbus’s first voyage, Spain and Portugal decide to prevent imperialistic rivalry by dividing the world between them In the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) they agreed upon a longitude of demarcation that ran from pole to pole at an arbitrary distance in the Atlantic Ocean; Portugal could claim any land east of his line, whereas Spain could have any land west of it Because of the terms of this treaty, the Spanish Empire was based mainly in the New World and the Philippines, while the Portugese Empire focused on Africa, India, Indonesia, and Brazil (which lay east of the Tordesillas line as it bisects South America) * divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe into an exclusive duopoly between the Spanish and the Portuguese along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). This was about halfway between the Cape Verde Islands (already Portuguese) and the islands discovered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Spain), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Spain.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Later Spanish Exploration

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As the New World began to be economically exploited by Spain, exploration continued Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and discovered the Pacific Ocean A voyage commanded by Ferdinand Magellan (a Portuguese mariner employed by Spain) circumnavigated the world by rounding South America (1520 – 1522) Magellan himself did not complete the voyage, but was killed in a fight with natives in the Philippines (1521) Hernando De Soto: explored Florida and the coast of the Gulf of Mexico

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Naming the New World

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The new continents were named by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemuller, who in 1516 published a map that labeled the new land masses “America” - a Latin adaptation of the first name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454-15120, a Florentine explorer who recognized that the new continents had been discovered

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Exploration by Other European Nations

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England, France and the Netherlands followed Portugal and Spain in exploring the New World They concentrated on North America, which had not yet been claimed and was not as wealthy as the more southerly regions To extract wealth from the natural resources of North America, these countries put more emphasis on settlement

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: England

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John Cabot: In 1497, Henry VIII hired an Italian mariner, John Cabot, to seek a direct route to Asia in the northern hemisphere Sir Francis Drake: However, no English expedition circumnavigated the glob until 1577-1580, when Sir Francis Drake landed on the west coast of North America and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth Drake brought back a cargo of spices and treasure he had raided from Spanish shipping; upon his return he was knighted aboard his flagship, the Golden Hind He later served as governor of English colonies in North America and as a member of Parliament Sir Walter Raleigh: launched two failed attempts at colonization at Roanoke Island, North Carolina (1585,1587) Jamestown: The 1st permanent English settlement was Jamestown in Virginian (1607) Plymouth Colony: established in 1620, after which colonization gained momentum

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: France

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Jacques Cartier: The leading French explorer was Jacques Cartier (1491-1557), who, like John Cabot, sought a northwest passage to the Far East He explored the St. Lawrence River valley, which France later colonized Samuel de Champlain: founded a trading post in 1608 which later became Quebec City Colonization in New France did not gain momentum until about 1650

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: The Netherlands

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The Dutch were the last to sponsor voyages of exploration Their most famous explorer was an Englishman named Henry Hudson, after whom the Hudson River is named in commemoration of his voyage there in 1609 Dutch colonists founded New Amsterdam in 1624 (which later became New York City) and settled the Hudson Valley This colonization was organized by the Dutch West India Company, a joint-stock company that reflected the new forms of financial organization that arose in the aftermath of the age of discovery

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: France: Religious War

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Under Francis I (1515-1547), the French monarchy acquired control over the Gallican (French) church through the Concordat of 1516, whereby the papacy allowed French kings to appoint their own bishops The spread of Calvinism in France, whose adherents were known as Huguenots, was seen as a threat to this national church – Persecution became systematic during the reign of Henry II (1547-1559), by which time a sizable minority of French nobles had become Huguenots After Henry II’s death, his widow, Catherine de’ Medici (de Medicis), dominated her three sons who inherited the throne Intermittent civil war over religion began in 1562, and in 1572 Catherine was involved in a purge of several thousand Huguenots known as the St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre. The wars continued until Henry of Navarre, the Huguenot leader, inherited the throne by right of succession and thus established the Bourbons as a royal dynasty As Henry IV (1589-1610), he converted to Catholicism in order to placate his Catholic subjects (remarking “Paris is worth a Mass”), but he protected his Calvinist subjects through the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted them freedom of worship

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: France: Cardinal Richelieu

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* His tenure was marked by the Thirty Years' War that engulfed Europe. Richelieu was devoted to the cause of royal absolutism in France, and by 1630 was its virtual ruler * He sought to consolidate royal power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state. * His chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty. * Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve this goal. The political terms of the Edict of Nantes were revoked in 1628 by the chief minister of Louis XIII (1610-1643), Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642), who subdued the Huguenot bastion of La Rochelle in order to eliminate their independent military and political power. However, he allowed them religious freedom as long as they agreed to serve the French monarchy To make the monarchy more powerful, Richelieu curbed the power of the nobility and increased military spending He was willing to make alliances with Protestant rulers in order to weaken the Hapsburgs, the chief rivals of the French kings French clergyman, noble, and statesman. Consecrated as a bishop in 1607, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. Richelieu soon rose in both the Church and the state, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642; he was succeeded by Jules Cardinal Mazarin. The Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the King's "Chief Minister" or "First Minister". As a result, he is sometimes considered to be the world's first Prime Minister, in the modern sense of the term. He sought to consolidate royal power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state. His chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve this goal. His tenure was marked by the Thirty Years' War that engulfed Europe.

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Early Modern Europe: Modernity

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By the middle of the 17th century, Europe had undergone crucial changes in a wide range of fields that dramatically altered its character and accelerated the pace of change After the rise of centralized monarchies, experiments in parliamentary democracy, new ways of organizing society and its wealth, new ways of thinking about the universe, and new technologies, Europeans were prepared to dominate the rest of the world As the rival states of Europe vied with one another to establish empires, they spread features of western civilization around the globe and ushered in the modern age

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Early Modern Europe: Spain: Philip II

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Charles V entrusted the crown of Spain to his son, Philip II (1556-1598), who had already received from him control of Milan (1540), the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily (1554), and the Netherlands (1555) Unlike his father, who had neglected the affairs of Spain, Philip II used his other lands for the goods of his Spanish kingdom Inquisition into the Netherlands: Deeply opposed to Protestantism, Philip introduced the Inquisition into the Netherlands, which prompted a revolt that began in 1566 Although Philip sent the Duke af Alba to suppress the rebellion, his brutal tyranny only intensified opposition, which in 1572 rallied around William the Silent, Prince of Orange The movement for independence was to last about 80 years Moriscos: In the meantime Philip’s suppression of religious dissidents extended to the former Muslim population of Spain, know as Moriscos (Muslim converts to Christianity who were suspected of secretly practicing Islam); nearly all of them were exiled in 1571. In the same year Philip sent a fleet commanded by his brother, John of Austria, to lead the Holy League (which included Spain, Venice, and the Papacy) against the Turks at Lepanto off the coast of Greece John’s victory did not result in any territorial gains against the Muslims, but it did free thousands of Christian galley slaves and proved that the Turks were not invincible Philip annexed Portugal in 1580, but his attempted conquest of England ended in failure in 1588 Philip’s last years were spent aiding the forces of the French Catholics in their war against Henry of Navarre

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Year’s War: Origins

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* religious war principally fought in Germany, where it involved most of the European powers. ! This religious war began between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, but gradually developed into a general, political war involving most of Europe. ! The Thirty Years' War was culmination of the France-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, which, in turn, led to wars between France and the Habsburg powers. The last of the religious wars occurred in the birthplace of Protestantism The Peace of Augsburg (1555): had resolved the initial religious war by allowing the ruler of each state within the Holy Roman Empire to determine its religion, but this caused problems because antagonism persisted between neighbors of the rival faiths and because it did not take into account the religious inclination of the majority of citizens in each state The Empire became divide into two rival camps: The Evangelical Union (1608) and the Catholic League (1609) – this powderkeg was then set off when the people of Bohemia, who were mostly Protestant, revolted in 1618 against their Catholic Hapsburg ruler and threw two imperial ministers out of a window in an act known as the Defenestration of Prague The conflict that ensued came to be known as the Thirty Years’ War (1618 – 1648), which occurred in four major phases

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Years War: Conduct of the War

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In the Bohemian phase (1618-1625), Catholic forces succeed in suppressing the rebellion within the Empire The period of foreign intervention that followed is known as the Danish phase (1625-1629), when Christian IV of Denmark alone fought the Catholics, who were led by the ambitious mercenary Count Wallenstein Denmark was defeated in 1629 and the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II (1619-1638), issued the Edict of Restitution, which transferred lands that the Protestants had seized from the Catholic Church The Hapsburg victory prompted another round of foreign intervention – by Protestants who wished to reverse the Edict of Restitution and by Catholic France, which was encircled by the Hapsburgs and alarmed by their increased strength Hoping to resotre the balance of power, Cardinal Richelieu (d 1642) of France agreed to provide financial support to the Protestants if they agreed to respect the religious freedom of Catholics in the territories they conquered A Swedish phase (1630-1635) began when the Lutheran King of Sweden, Gustavos Adolphus (1611-1632), liberated northern Germany from Hapsburg occupation and seized Catholic lands in southern Germany. Gustavos Adolphus (1611-1632), liberated northern Germany from Hapsburg occupation and seized Catholic lands in southern Germany – he died in 1632, and the Protestant cause was carried on by his chancellor, Oxenstierna. However, Ferdinand II managed to roll back their victories (without Wallenstein, who was assassinated in 1634) In 1635, the Swedes and the Hapsburgs came to an agreement known as the Peace of Prague, which ended the religious aspects of the war by modifying the Edict of Restitution and settling territorial issues between Catholics and Lutherans At this point Cardinal Richelieu intervened openly, initiating the French phase (1635-1648) by declaring war on Hapsburg Spain and sending French troops into the Holy Roman Empire Thus, the last phase was a purely dynastic struggle in which he Catholic Bourbons of France were allied with Protestant (mostly Swedish) forces – as the fighting dragged on, Germany was devastated; it lost about a 3rd of its population to war, famine and plague

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Year’s War: Treaty of Westphalia

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* Refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of 1648 respectively, which ended both the Thirty Years' War in Germany and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands. The treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III (Habsburg), the Kingdoms of Spain, France and Sweden, the Dutch Republic and their respective allies among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. * The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress and initiated a new order in central Europe based on the concept of state sovereignty. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ended the war between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord. ! Although it reaffirmed the principle that the ruler of each state should determine its faith, it also stipulated that any prince who should change his faith in the future would forfeit his rule (thereby halting the spread of Protestantism) ! Improved on the Peace of Augsburg (1555) by extending recognition to Calvinism as well as to Lutheranism ! Thus the Treaty of Westphalia redefined the religious and political map of Europe ! The division between Protestants and Catholics was recognized as a permanent schism, and France become the most powerful state on the Continent ( After several years of negotiation, the belligerents ended the war through the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) Furthermore, the treaty granted Alsace to France and certain Baltic regions to Sweden It recognized the Swiss Confederacy and the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces as sovereign nations independent of Hapsburg control It also recognized the sovereignty of the approximately 300 constituent states of the Holy Roman Empire, which effectively eliminated the Empire as a meaningful political entity Among the German states was the new duchy of Prussia, which was formed from the lands of the Teutonic Knights when its last grand master, Albrecht von Hohenzollern, converted to Lutheranism in 1525 With regard to religion, the Treaty of Westphalia accepted the status quo )

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Year’s War: Treaty of Westphalia

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After several years of negotiation, the belligerents ended the war through the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) Furthermore, the treaty granted Alsace to France and certain Baltic regions to Sweden It recognized the Swiss Confederacy and the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces as sovereign nations independent of Hapsburg control It also recognized the sovereignty of the approximately 300 constituent states of the Holy Roman Empire, which effectively eliminated the Empire as a meaningful political entity Among the German states was the new duchy of Prussia, which was formed from the lands of the Teutonic Knights when its last grand master, Albrecht von Hohenzollern, converted to Lutheranism in 1525 With regard to religion, the Treaty of Westphalia accepted the status quo Although it reaffirmed the principle that the ruler of each stat should determine its faith, it also stipulated that any prince who should change his faith in the future would forfeit his rule (thereby halting the spread of Protestantism) It improved on the Peace of Augsburg (1555) by extending recognition to Calvinism as well as to Lutheranism Thus the Treaty of Westphalia redefined the religious and political map of Europe The division between Protestants and Catholics was recognized as a permanent schism, and France become the most powerful state on the Continent

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View

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The religious and political transformations of the 16th and 17th centuries coincide with perhaps even more momentous changes in its thought and culture The most far-reaching development is known as the Scientific Revolution, but even as this statement of supreme confidence in the powers of human reason got under way, Europeans gave old superstitions new legitimacy in the charged atmosphere of the religious conflicts

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: The Witch Craze

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Belief in magic was common during Greco-Roman antiquity and persisted throughout the Middle Ages, but large-scale persecutions of witches were uncommon until the late 15th century, following the publication of a manually for witch-hunting known as the Hammer Witches (1486), written by tow Dominican Inquisitors During the heightened tensions of the religious wars, Catholics and Protestants alike used this book as a guide for the detection, trial, and execution of witches, mostly targeting elderly women who lived alone The persecutions did not end until about the year 1700, when the Scientific Revolution inspired an era of skepticism known as the Age of Enlightenment * The period of witch trials in Early Modern Europe came in waves and then subsided. There were early trials in the 15th and early 16th centuries, but then the witch scare went into decline, before becoming a big issue again and peaking in the 17th century. Some scholars argue that a fear of witchcraft started among intellectuals who believed in maleficium; that is, bad deeds. What had previously been a belief that some people possessed supernatural abilities (which sometimes resulted in protecting the people), now became a sign of a pact between these people with supernatural abilities and the devil. Witchcraft became associated with wild Satanic ritual parties in which there was much naked dancing, orgy sex, and cannibalistic infanticide. Witch-hunts were seen across early modern Europe, but the most significant area of witch-hunting in modern Europe is often considered to be southwestern Germany[citation needed]. In Germany the number of trials compared to other regions of Europe shows it to have been a late starter. Witch-hunts first appeared in large numbers in southern France and Switzerland during the 14th and 15th centuries. The peak years of witch-hunts in southwest Germany were from 1561 to 1670. The first major persecution in Europe, that caught, tried, convicted, and burned witches in the imperial lordship of Wiesensteig in southwestern Germany, is recorded in 1563 in a pamphlet called True and Horrifying Deeds of 63 Witches Current scholarly estimates of the number of people executed for witchcraft vary between about 40,000 and 100,000. ! Total number of witch trials in Europe which are known for certain to have ended in executions is around 12,000. During early 18th century, the practice subsided. The last execution for witchcraft in England took place in 1716, when Mary Hicks and her daughter Elizabeth were hanged. Jane Wenham was among the last subjects of a typical witch trial in England in 1712, but was pardoned after her conviction and set free. The Witchcraft Act of 1734 saw the end of the traditional form of witchcraft as a legal offence in Britain, those accused under the new act were restricted to people who falsely pretended to be able to procure spirits, generally being the most dubious professional fortune tellers and mediums, and punishment was light.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: The Witch Craze: Hammer of Witches

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Belief in magic was common during Greco-Roman antiquity and persisted throughout the Middle Ages, but large-scale persecutions of witches were uncommon until the late 15th century, following the publication of a manually for witch-hunting known as the Hammer Witches (1486), written by tow Dominican Inquisitors During the heightened tensions of the religious wars, Catholics and Protestants alike used this book as a guide for the detection, trial, and execution of witches, mostly targeting elderly women who lived alone The persecutions did not end until about the year 1700, when the Scientific Revolution inspired an era of skepticism known as the Age of Enlightenment

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Astronomy

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Nicholas Copernicus : Although the Hellenistic astronomer Aristarchus had first maintained that the earth orbits the sun, this heliocentric theory was largely ignored until the 16th century, when the geocentric, or earth-centered, theory advocated by Ptolemy was finally challenged by the Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) His book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs” (1543) applied the principle of logical economy (“Ockham’s Razor”) to simplify the cosmic model: Copernicus conclude that the heliocentric theory better explained the observed motions of the planets thatn did the geocentric model, which required a complicated system of imaginary epicycles Yet Copernicus’s theory of circular orbits was not correct either, and problems with the heliocentric model were not resolved until Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered, on the basis of the precise observations collected by Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601), that planetary orbits are not circular but elliptical This refined heliocentric theory was then popularized by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) By writing in Italian rather than Latin, Galileo transferred the discussion from the tiny circle of a few specialists to a general audience – he was put under house arrest for his headstrong popularization of this controversial theory, which undermined confidence in ancient authority

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Astronomy: Heliocentric Theory

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Nicholas Copernicus : Although the Hellenistic astronomer Aristarchus had first maintained that the earth orbits the sun, this heliocentric theory was largely ignored until the 16th century, when the geocentric, or earth-centered, theory advocated by Ptolemy was finally challenged by the Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) His book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs” (1543) applied the principle of logical economy (“Ockham’s Razor”) to simplify the cosmic model: Copernicus conclude that the heliocentric theory better explained the observed motions of the planets thatn did the geocentric model, which required a complicated system of imaginary epicycles Yet Copernicus’s theory of circular orbits was not correct either, and problems with the heliocentric model were not resolved until Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered, on the basis of the precise observations collected by Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601), that planetary orbits are not circular but elliptical This refined heliocentric theory was then popularized by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) By writing in Italian rather than Latin, Galileo transferred the discussion from the tiny circle of a few specialists to a general audience – he was put under house arrest for his headstrong popularization of this controversial theory, which undermined confidence in ancient authority

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Bacon

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The advances in astronomy could not have been made without precise observations and a revival of mathematics These two elements, which are central to modern science, were promoted by the English scientific popularizer and theorist Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) Although not a scientist but a statesman, Bacon’s theoretical writings advanced the cause of science by downplaying the traditional deductive method of reasoning (which begins with general premises and draws general conclusions) The inductive method became the basic procedure of the new science Bacon also advocated the empirical method, which emphasized the important of conducting experiments in order to provide accurate data for induction

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Bacon: Empirical Method

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Bacon also advocated the empirical method, which emphasized the important of conducting experiments in order to provide accurate data for induction * the collection of data on which to base a theory or derive a conclusion in science. It is part of the scientific method, but is often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with the experimental method.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Descartes

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Bacon’s empirical method was challenged by thinkers known as rationalists, who held that accurate knowledge about the world could be attained by the faculty of human reason alone The leading proponent of this method was the French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), who proved the validity of his position by making contributions to mathematics that remain in use to this day Cartesian coordinates (the graphic depiction of algebraic equations as geometric lines on a two-dimensional grid) are named after him Descartes was not wholly opposed to induction, and made contributions to science, but he is most famous for his achievements in philosophy which employ deductive reasoning, particularly his use of the axiom, “I think, therefore I am” (in Latin, Cogito, ergo sum), to serve as the foundation of his skeptical system of philosophy Descartes used this proof of his own existence to construct arguments for the existence of God that were not based on authority or experimentation but on reason alone

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Blaise Pascal

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The new arguments over the relative merits of induction and deduction were criticized by Descartes’ countryman, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). Despite making important contributions to mathematics (especially probability theory and conic sections in geometry) and science (such as observations of atmospheric pressure), Pascal found the relative absence of God in the new world view a troubling development. He turned for spiritual renewal to the Catholic reform movement known as Jansenism, which emphasized faith over reason and insisted on the human need for God’s grace French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher. Child prodigy who was educated by his father. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical calculators, the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method. Pascal was a mathematician of the first order. He helped create two major new areas of research. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following a mystical experience in late 1654, he abandoned his scientific work and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées. Pascal was in poor health throughout his life and his death came just two months after his 39th birthday.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Medicine

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The new confidence in human reason, which turned away from old authorities to study the world anew, transformed nearly all disciplines, including medicine The Belgian physician Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) conducted dissections of animals and human cadavers in order to dispute the ancient authority Galen (c 129-199) He shared his discoveries in his book “On the Structure of the Human Body” (1543) An important contribution toward the study of the pulmonary circulatory system was made by the Spanish physician Michael Servetus (who was executed for heresy by the Calvinists in 1553) Later, the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657) published his discovery of the role of the heart in the circulatory system in his book “On the Motion of the Heart” (1628) The alchemist Paracelsus (1493 – 1541) made an important contribution to medicine by arguing that diseases arise from the presence of foreign bodies; he recommended the use of minerals to neutralize these foreign bodies

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Medicine: William Harvey

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The new confidence in human reason, which turned away from old authorities to study the world anew, transformed nearly all disciplines, including medicine The Belgian physician Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) conducted dissections of animals and human cadavers in order to dispute the ancient authority Galen (c 129-199) He shared his discoveries in his book “On the Structure of the Human Body” (1543) An important contribution toward the study of the pulmonary circulatory system was made by the Spanish physician Michael Servetus (who was executed for heresy by the Calvinists in 1553) Later, the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657) published his discovery of the role of the heart in the circulatory system in his book “On the Motion of the Heart” (1628) The alchemist Paracelsus (1493 – 1541) made an important contribution to medicine by arguing that diseases arise from the presence of foreign bodies; he recommended the use of minerals to neutralize these foreign bodies

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Literature

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In literature as well, authors began to criticize the old world view. French literature was represented by the satires of Francois Rabelais (c 1494-1553), who ridiculed European society in his often bawdy tales about two giants named Gargantua and Pantagruel, and by Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), who established the essay as a literary form and used it in his skeptical enterprise of questioning dogmatic opinions that lack rational foundation

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Political Theory

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The rise of centralized monarchies and the wars they waged inspired political thinkers to explore new theories of power Although many defended absolute monarchy with the doctrine of the divine right of kings, non-religious arguments for absolutism were put forward by the French philosopher Jean Bodin (1530-1596) an the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Bodin argued in his “Republic” (1576) that the king of each nation should have to answer to no one – whether the Holy Roman Emperor, the Pope, or his own people - and that he should not be bound by laws, although he should govern in accordance with natural law Hobbes argued in the Leviathan (1651) that human life in the “state of nature” is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,” and that the only hope for establishing order is to obey an absolute monarch, who serves as the head of the body politic Hobbe’s attitude reflects the chaos that aros during the English Civil War Hugo Grotius (1583 – 1645): another philosopher who wrote in response to the chaos his age was Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), who used natural law to outline principles for international relations (including a theory of the just war) in his book “On the Law of War and Peace (1625)”

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Enclosure Movement

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In 16th-century England, lands that were once shared by peasants for common use were bought up by rich men and converted into pastures, a process known as the “enclosure movement,” since the pastures were fenced off, or “enclosed,” to prevent their use by peasants and promote specialization.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Colonization

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Spanish colonists soon began to settle the Caribbean islands in small numbers in order to establish plantations (mostly sugar cane) for the sake of making profits They forced the native populations to work for them on estates granted by the Spanish king known as enncomiendas The encomienda system, which transplanted the model of the medieval manor into the New World, was so brutal that one of the colonizers, Bartolome de Las Calas (1474-1566), campaigned against the harsh treatment of natives He wrote numerous pamphlets and a history of Spanish colonization in the New World

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Early Modern Europe: Baroque Art and Architecture: Mannerism: El Greco

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Painter, sculptor, and architect of the Spanish Renaissance. He usually signed his paintings in Greek letters with his full name, Doménicos Theotokópoulos (Greek: Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος), underscoring his Greek origin. His dramatic and expressionistic style was met with puzzlement by his contemporaries but found appreciation in the 20th century. Regarded as a precursor of both Expressionism and Cubism, while his personality and works were a source of inspiration for poets and writers such as Rainer Maria Rilke and Nikos Kazantzakis. El Greco has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional school. He is best known for tortuously elongated figures and often fantastic or phantasmagorical pigmentation, marrying Byzantine traditions with those of Western painting.

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: France: Religious War: Edict of Nantes

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Henry IV (Henry of Navarre, Huguenot leader) converted to Catholicism in order to placate his Catholic subjects (remarking “Paris is worth a Mass”), but he protected his Calvinist subjects through the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted them freedom of worship * issued on April 13, 1598[1] by Henry IV of France to grant the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic.

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Years War: Conduct of the War: Edict of Restitution

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30YWAR: Bohemian Phase: Catholic forces succeeded in suppressing the rebellion within the Empire The period of foreign intervention that followed is known as the Danish phase (1625-1629), when Christian IV of Denmark alone fought the Catholics, who were led by the ambitious mercenary Count Wallenstein Denmark was defeated in 1629 and the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II (1619-1637, issued the Edict of Restitution, which transferred lands that the Protestants had seized from the Catholic Church * passed eleven years into the Thirty Years' Wars on March 6, 1629 following a very litany of Catholic successes at arms, was an much belated ex post facto attempt by Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor to impose (and restore the status quo ante) religious and territorial situations reached in the settlement known as the Peace of Augsburg (1555).

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Early Modern Europe: England: Defeat of the Spanish Armada

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Elizabeth’s aid for the Dutch rebellion against Spain (1585-1587) provoked Philip II to send the Spanish Armada against England in 1588, but this grand fleet was destroyed by a storm (called the “Protestant Wind”) and the formidable English fleet, whose vessels were smaller but more maneuverable and could fire cannonballs faster than the larger but slower Spanish galleons

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: The Stuarts: Guy Fawkes

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(James used his supreme authority in matters of religion to persecute Catholics (provoking Guy Fawkes’ failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605) and to authorize the translation of the Bible known as the King James Version (1611)) Guy Fawkes (13 April 1570 – 31 January 1606) sometimes known as Guido Fawkes, was a member of a group of Roman Catholic revolutionaries from England who planned to carry out the Gunpowder Plot. Although Robert Catesby was the lead figure in thinking up the actual plot, Fawkes was put in charge of executing the plan for his military and explosives experience. The plot was foiled shortly before its intended completion, as Fawkes was captured while guarding the gunpowder. Suspicion was aroused by his wearing a coat, boots and spurs, as if he intended to leave very quickly. Fawkes has left a lasting mark on history and popular culture. Held in the United Kingdom (and some parts of the Commonwealth) on November 5 is Bonfire Night, centred on the plot and Fawkes. He has been mentioned in popular film, literature and music by people such as Charles Dickens and John Lennon. There are geographical locations named after Fawkes, such as Isla Guy Fawkes in the Galápagos Islands and Guy Fawkes River in Australia.

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Year’s War: Origins: Evangelical Union

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The Protestant Union or League of Evangelical Union (also known as the Evangelical Union or Union of Auhausen) was a coalition of Protestant German states that was formed in 1608 to defend the rights, lands and person of each member. It was formed after the Holy Roman Emperor and Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria reestablished Roman Catholicism in Donauwörth in 1607 and after a majority of the Reichstag had decided in 1608 that the renewal of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 should be conditional upon the restoration of all church land appropriated since 1552. The Protestant Princes met in Auhausen, near Nördlingen and on May 14, 1608, formed a military league under the leadership of Frederick IV of the Palatinate. In response, the Catholic League was formed in the following year, headed by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Members included the Palatinate, Anhalt, Neuburg, Württemberg, Baden, Ansbach, Bayreuth, Hesse-Kassel, Brandenburg, Ulm, Strasbourg and Nürnberg. The Protestant Union was weakened from the start by the non-participation of several powerful Protestant rulers, such as the Elector of Saxony. The Union was also beset by internal strife between its Lutheran and Calvinist members. When Frederick V of the Palatinate, (successor to Frederick IV), accepted the crown of Bohemia in 1619, the Protestant Union signed the Treaty of Ulm (1620) and refused to support him. In January 1621, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II imposed the Ban of the Empire upon Frederick V and gave his electorate and the Upper Palatinate to Maximilian. The Protestant Union met in Heilbronn in February and formally protested the actions of Ferdinand. Ferdinand ignored this complaint and ordered the Protestant Union to disband their army. In May, under the Mainz Accord, the members of the Protestant Union complied with Ferdinand's demand and, on 24 May 1621, formally dissolved the Protestant Union.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Hugo Grotius

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Wrote in response to the chaos of his age “On the Law of War and Peace”: Used natural law to outline principles for international relations (including a theory of the just war) in his book “On the Law of War and Peace (1625)” Worked as a jurist in the Dutch Republic Laid the foundations with Francisco de Vitoria for international law, based on natural law. He was also a philosopher, Christian apologist, playwright, and poet.

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Early Modern Europe: Astronomy: Geocentric Theory

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The geocentric model of the universe is the theory that the Earth is at the center of the universe and the Sun and other objects go around it. Belief in this system was common in ancient Greece. It was embraced by both Aristotle and Ptolemy, and most Greek philosophers assumed that the Sun, Moon, stars, and naked eye planets circle the Earth. Similar ideas were held in ancient China.[1] Two common observations were believed to support the idea that the Earth is in the center of the Universe. The first is that the stars (including the Sun and planets) appear to revolve around the Earth each day, with the stars circling around the pole and those stars nearer the equator rising and setting each day and circling back to their rising point.[2] The second is the common sense perception that the Earth is solid and stable; it is not moving but is at rest. The geocentric model was usually combined with a spherical Earth by ancient Greek and medieval philosophers. It is not the same as the older flat Earth model implied in some mythology. The ancient Greeks also believed that the motions of the planets were circular and not elliptical, a view that was not challenged in western culture before the 17th century. The geocentric model held sway into the early modern age; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced by the heliocentric model of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler. Today, geocentric cosmology survives as a literary element within alternate history science fiction.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Vasco De Gama

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Sailed to India and back, opening a trade route for spices and other luxury goods Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the European Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India. Gama's achievements were somewhat dimmed by his failure to bring any trade goods of interest to the nations of India. Moreover, the sea route was fraught with its own perils - his fleet went more than thirty day's without seeing land and only 60 of his 180 companions, on one of his three ships, returned to Portugal in 1498. Nevertheless, Gama's initial journey opened direct sea route to Asia.

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Early Modern Europe: Astronomy: Galileo Galilei

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The refined heliocentric theory (precise observations collected by Tycho Brahe, discovered by Johannes Kepler) was then popularized by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Tuscan (Italian) physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy",[4] the "father of modern physics",[5] the "father of science",[5] and “the Father of Modern Science.”[6] The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught in nearly all high school and introductory college physics courses, was studied by Galileo as the subject of kinematics. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, named the Galilean moons in his honour, and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, improving compass design. Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime. The geocentric view had been dominant since the time of Aristotle, and the controversy engendered by Galileo's presentation of heliocentrism as proven fact resulted in the Catholic Church's prohibiting its advocacy as empirically proven fact, because it was not empirically proven at the time and was contrary to the literal meaning of Scripture.[7] Galileo was eventually forced to recant his heliocentrism and spent the last years of his life under house arrest on orders of the Inquisition

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Years’ War: Treaty of Westphalia: France, following the Treaty of Westphalia

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After several years of negotiation, the belligerents ended the war through the TOW (1648) Furthermore, the treaty granted Alsace to France and certain Baltic regions to Sweden Thus, the treaty of Westphalia redefined the religious and political map of Europe The division between Protestants and Catholics was recognized as a permanent schism, and France became the most powerful state on the Continent

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: The Netherlands: Henry Hudson

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English sea explorer and navigator in the early 17th century. In 1610, Hudson managed to get the backing for yet another voyage, now under the English flag. The funding came from the Virginia Company and the British East India Company. At the helm of his new ship, the Discovery, he stayed to the north (some claim he deliberately went too far south with the Dutch), reaching Iceland on May 11, the south of Greenland on June 4, and then managing to turn around the southern tip of Greenland. Excitement was high due to the expectation that the ship had finally found the Northwest Passage through the continent. On June 25, the explorers reached the Hudson Strait at the northern tip of Labrador. Following the southern coast of the strait on August 2, the ship entered Hudson Bay. Hudson spent the following months mapping and exploring the eastern shores. In November, however, the ship became trapped in the ice in James Bay, and the crew moved ashore for the winter. When the ice cleared in the spring of 1611, Hudson planned to continue exploring. However, his crew wanted to return home. Matters came to a head and the crew mutinied in June 1611. They set Hudson, his teenage son John, and eight crewmen - either sick and infirm, or loyal to Hudson - adrift in a small open boat. According to Abacuck Prickett's journal, the castaways were provided with powder and shot, some pikes, an iron pot, some meal, and other miscellaneous items as well as clothing. However, Prickett's journal was disingenous insofar that it was written to be advantageous to the point of view of the mutineers (as they knew they would be tried in England). Some argue that the abandoned men were provided with nothing and expected to die. The small boat kept pace with the Discovery for some time as the abandoned men rowed towards her but eventually Discovery's sails were let loose.[3] Hudson was never seen again. Only eight of the thirteen mutinous crewmen survived to return to Europe, and although arrested, none were ever punished for the mutiny and Hudson's death. One theory holds that they were considered valuable as sources of information, having traveled to the New World.[4] Henry Hudson has landmarks named after him, including Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait and the Hudson River.

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Year’s War: Treaty of Westphalia: Albrecht von Hohenzollern

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Post 30 Years War’s TOW: Among the German states was the new duchy of Prussia, which was formed from the lands of the Teutonic Knights when its last grand master, Albrecht von Hohenzollern, converted to Lutheranism in 1525 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia, which was the first state to adopt the Lutheran faith. Because Albert was a member of the Brandenburg-Ansbach branch of the House of Hohenzollern, it had been hoped that his election as Grand Master would reverse the decline of the Teutonic Knights since 1410; Duke Frederick of Saxony of the House of Wettin had been elected for the same reason. Instead, Albert's secularization of the Prussian territories of the Order eventually led to the inheritance of the Duchy of Prussia by the Margraviate of Brandenburg.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Political Theory: Thomas Hobbes

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Leviathan: English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory and classical republicanism. Hobbes is remembered today for his work on political philosophy, although he contributed to a diverse array of fields, including history, geometry, physics of gases, theology, ethics, general philosophy, and political science. But nonetheless Hobbes's account of human nature as self-interested cooperation has proved to be an enduring theory in the field of philosophical anthropology.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Inductive Reasoning

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See: Francis Bacon Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed to support the conclusion but do not entail it; i.e. they do not ensure its truth. Induction is a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances.[1] It is used to ascribe properties or relations to types based on an observation instance (i.e., on a number of observations or experiences); or to formulate laws based on limited observations of recurring phenomenal patterns. Induction is employed, for example, in using specific propositions such as: This ice is cold. (or: All ice I have ever touched was cold.) This billiard ball moves when struck with a cue. (or: 100/100 billiard balls struck with a cue moved.) ...to infer general propositions such as: All ice is cold. All billiard balls move when struck with a cue. Inductive reasoning has been attacked several times. Historically, David Hume denied its logical admissibility. Sextus Empiricus questioned how the truth of the universal can be established by examining some of the particulars. Examining all the particulars is difficult as they are infinite in number. [2] During the twentieth century, thinkers such as Karl Popper and David Miller have disputed the existence, necessity and validity of any inductive reasoning, including probabilistic (Bayesian) reasoning[citation needed]. Scientists still rely on induction nevertheless. Note that mathematical induction is not a form of inductive reasoning. Mathematical induction is a form of deductive reasoning.

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Early Modern Europe: Descartes: Deductive Reasoning

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Bacon’s empirical method was challenged by thinkers known as rationalists, who held that accurate knowledge about the world could be attained by the faculty of human reason alone The leading proponent of this method was the French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who proved the validity of his position by making contributions to mathematics that remain in use to this day Cartesian coordinates (the graphic depiction of algebraic equations as geometric lines on a two-dimensional grid) are named after him Descartes was not wholly opposed to induction, and made contributions to science, but he is most famous for his achievements in philosophy which employ deductive reasoning, particularly his use of the axiom, “I think ,therefore I am” (in Latin, Cogito, ergo sum), to serve as the foundation of his skeptical system of philosophy Descartes used that proof of his own existence to construct arguments for the existence of God that were not based on authority or experimentation but on reason alone

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Astronomy: Johannes Kepler

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(Copernicus’s theory of circular orbits was not correct either, and problems with the heliocentric model were not resolved until Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered, on the basis of the precise observations collected by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), that planetary orbits are not circular but elliptical) * German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century astronomical revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astrononomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, the court mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II, a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. He also did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and helped to legitimize the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of the more prestigious discipline of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason. Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics", as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics", and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens", transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics. On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz; several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (now deceased) rival Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prussian Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on October 24, 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. He illegally appropriated Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs, which subsequently led to four year delays each to the publications of two of his works whilst he negotiated copyright permissions for the use of Tycho's data. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Jansenism (Pascal)

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Pascal found the relative absence of God in the new world view a troubling development He turned for spiritual renewal to the Catholic reform movement known as Jansenism, which emphasized faith over reason and insisted on the human need for God’s grace * branch of Catholic Gallican thought which arose in the frame of the Counter-Reformation and the aftermath of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). * emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. Originating in the writings of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Otto Jansen, Jansenism formed a distinct movement within the Roman Catholic Church from the 16th to 18th centuries, and found its most important stronghold in the Parisian convent of Port-Royal, haven of many important theologians and writers (Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, Jean Racine, etc.). The term itself was coined by its Jesuit opponents, who accused them of being close to Calvinists, as Jansenists self-identified as rigorous followers of Augustinism.[1] Although several propositions supported by Jansenists, in particular concerning the relationship between human's free will and "efficacious grace," were condemned by the Pope, and the movement thus considered as heretical, "Jansenism" in itself was never condemned as heretical by the Roman Catholic Church.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Colonization: Bartolome de Las Casas

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(The encomienda system, which transplanted the model of the medieval manor into the New World, was so brutal that one of the colonizers, Bartolome de Las Casas (1474-1566), campaigned against the harsh treatment of natives.) He wrote numerous pamphlets and a history of Spanish colonization in the New World According to Las Casas, it was the responsibility of the Spanish to convert the Indians, who would then be loyal subjects of Spain, rather than to kill them. 16th century Spanish Dominican priest and the first resident Bishop of Chiapas. As a settler in the New World, he was galvanized by witnessing the torture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists. He is commemorated as a missionary in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on July 17. Las Casas became well-known for his advocacy of the rights of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, whose cultures he described with care. His descriptions of the caciques (chiefs or princes), bohiques (shamans or clerics), ni-taínos (noblemen), and naborias (common folk) in the Caribbean clearly showed a feudal structure. The book was dedicated to King Philip II of Spain. Las Casas explained that he had supported the Spanish conquest when he first arrived in the New World, but that he soon became convinced that it would lead to the collapse of Spain itself in an act of Divine retribution. To address the labor needs of the Spanish colonists, Las Casas proposed that Africans be brought to America instead, though he later changed his mind about this when he saw the effects of slavery on Africans. Largely due to his efforts, New Laws were adopted in 1542 to protect American Indians in the colonies. Las Casas also wrote Historia de las Indias and was the editor of Christopher Columbus' published journal. He was instrumental, on his repeated return trips to Spain, in gaining the temporary repeal of the encomienda regulations that established virtual slave labor gangs in Spanish America.

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Early Modern Europe: Literature

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In literature as well, authors began to criticize the old world view French literature was represented by the satires of: Francois Rabelais (c 1494-1553), who ridiculed European society in his often bawdy tales about two giants named Gargantua and Pantagrual - and by - Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), who established the essay as a literary form and used it in his skeptical enterprise of questioning dogmatic opinions that lack rational foundation. The finest Spanish response to the crisis presented by the clash of world views was the satirical novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616), which depicts an idealistic nobleman who finds that chivalry is useless in the modern world (more in card)

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Early Modern Europe: Baroque Art and Architecture: Mannerism

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Mannerism: The path to Baroque painting, as represented by Velazques (1599-1660), was blazed by the school known as Mannerism, whose dramatic qualities are demonstrated by: El Greco (1541 – 1614) Dutch Masters of Baroque Painting: * Rubens (1577-1640) * Rembrandt (1606-1669) - their works have a sensuous quality that exploits light and shadow for rich, emotional effects Mannerist Art is characterized by a complex composition, with muscular and elongated figures in complex poses. Discussing Michelangelo in his journal, Eugène Delacroix gives as good a description as any of the limitations of Mannerism: "[A]ll that he has painted is muscles and poses, in which even science, contrary to general opinion, is by no means the dominant factor... He did not know a single one of the feelings of man, not one of his passions. When he was making an arm or a leg, it seems as if he were thinking only of that arm or leg and was not giving the slightest consideration to the way it relates with the action of the figure to which it belongs, much less to the action of the picture as a whole... Therein lies his great merit; he brings a sense of the grand and the terrible into even an isolated limb." * period of European art which emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. It lasted until about 1580 in Italy, when a more Baroque style began to replace it, but continued into the seventeenth century throughout much of Europe.[1] Stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. The definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continue to be the subject of debate among art historians. For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature (especially poetry) and music of the sixteenth and seventeen centuries. The term is also used to refer to some Late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists—a group unrelated to the Italian movement. ** Mannerism, the artistic style which gained popularity in the period following the High Renaissance, takes as its ideals the work of Raphael and Michelangelo Buonarroti. It is considered to be a period of technical accomplishment but also of formulaic, theatrical and overly stylized work.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Later Spanish Exploration: Ferdinand Magellan

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* He was the first explorer to lead an expedition around the world. A voyage commanded by Ferdinand Magellan (a Portuguese mariner employed by Spain) circumnavigated the world by rounding South America (1520 – 1522) Magellan himself did not complete the voyage, but was killed in a fight with natives in the Philippines (1521) Portuguese maritime explorer who, while in the service of the Spanish Crown, tried to find a westward route to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. This was the first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth in history. Although he did not complete the entire voyage (he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines) fellow Basque-navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano completed the final westward voyage. As Magellan traveled farther west than the Spice Islands, which he had visited on earlier voyages from the west, he became one of the first individuals to cross all the meridians of the globe. He was the first person to lead an expedition sailing westward from Europe to Asia and to cross the Pacific Ocean.

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: Nationalism and Religion

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Politics in early modern Europe was dominated by the increasing power of centralized monarchies, which led to nationalism, dynastic struggles, and conflict over religious differences These forces interacted in complex ways, for although Catholics and Protestants often fought one another, national interest also induced some of them to cooperate against a common political enemy and thus make alliances against co-religionists While there is significant debate over the historical origins of nations, nearly all specialists accept that nationalism, at least as an ideology and social movement, is a modern phenomenon originating in Europe Precisely where and when it emerged is difficult to determine, but its development is closely related to that of the modern state and the push for popular sovereignty that came to a head with the French Revolution in the late eighteenth century. Since that time, nationalism has become one of the most significant political and social forces in history, perhaps most notably as a cause of both the First and Second World Wars.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Literature: Michel de Montaigne

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(1533-1592) One of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance. Known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. Became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes[1] and autobiography — and his massive volume Essais (translated literally as "Attempts") contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Had a direct influence on writers the world over: including: René Descartes[citation needed] Ralph Waldo Emerson Stephan Zweig Friedrich Nietzsche Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and perhaps William Shakespeare (see section "Related Writers and Influence" below). Was a conservative and earnest Catholic but, as a result of his anti-dogmatic cast of mind, he is considered the father, alongside his contemporary and intimate friend Étienne de La Boétie, of the 'anti-conformist' tradition in French literature.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Blaise Pascal: Probability Theory

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! branch of mathematics concerned with analysis of random phenomena. !Has its roots in attempts to analyze games of chance by Gerolamo Cardano in the sixteenth century, and by Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal in the seventeenth century (for example the "problem of points"). Christiaan Huygens published a book on the subject in 1657. ! The problem of points, also called the problem of division of the stakes, is a classical problem in probability theory. One of the famous problems that motivated the beginnings of modern probability theory in the 1600s, it led Blaise Pascal to the first explicit reasoning about what today is known as an expectation value. The central objects of probability theory are random variables, stochastic processes, and events: mathematical abstractions of non-deterministic events or measured quantities that may either be single occurrences or evolve over time in an apparently random fashion. Although an individual coin toss or the roll of a die is a random event, if repeated many times the sequence of random events will exhibit certain statistical patterns, which can be studied and predicted. Two representative mathematical results describing such patterns are the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Conquistadors: Francisco Pizarro

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! Spanish conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire - (1532 – 1533) ! Founder of Lima, the modern-day capital of Peru. ! Through his father, Francisco was second cousin to Hernán Cortés, the famed conquistador of Mexico. Illegitimate son of Gonzalo Pizarro Rodríguez de Aguilar (senior) (1446-1522) who as colonel of infantry served in the Italian campaigns under Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, and in Navarre, with some distinction. His mother was Francisca González Mateos, a woman of slender means from Trujillo, daughter of Juan Mateos, of the family called Los Roperos, and wife María Alonso, labradores pecheros from Trujillo. His mother married lately and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, married to Inés Muñoz, who from the beginning was at the Conquest of Perú, where he then lived, always at his brother's side, who had him always as one of his most trustful men.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Medicine: Philippus Paracelsus

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! (Alchemist), made an important contribution to medicine by arguing that diseases arise from the presence of foreign bodies; ! He recommended the use of minerals to neutralize these foreign bodies ! Credited for giving zinc its name (at the time he called it "zincum"). Pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man, the microcosm, and Nature, the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.

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Early Modern Europe: Baroque Art and Architecture: Dutch Masters of Baroque Painting: Rubens (, Peter Paul)

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! Prolific seventeenth-century Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an exuberant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. ! Well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. ! In addition to running a large studio in Antwerp which produced paintings popular with nobility and art collectors throughout Europe, Rubens was a classically-educated humanist scholar, art collector, and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV, king of Spain, and Charles I, king of England.

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Early Modern Europe: Baroque Art and Architecture: Dutch Masters of Baroque Painting: Rembrandt (Harmenszoon van Rijn )

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(July 15, 1606 – October 4, 1669) ! Work has a sensuous quality that exploits light and shadow for rich, emotional effects ! Dutch painter and etcher - generally considered one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art history and the most important in Dutch history. His contributions to art came in a period that historians call the Dutch Golden Age. Having achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, his later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardship. Yet his drawings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high and for twenty years he taught nearly every important Dutch painter. Greatest creative triumphs are exemplified especially in his portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible. The self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and with the utmost sincerity. In both painting and printmaking he exhibited a complete knowledge of classical iconography, which he molded to fit the requirements of his own experience; thus, the depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specific text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of the Jewish population of Amsterdam. Because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called "one of the great prophets of civilization."

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Early Modern: Europe Revolution in World View: Descartes: Rationalism

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! In epistemology and in its broadest sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286). In more technical terms it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive" (Bourke 263). Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the radical position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge" ! Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths – including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences – could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the world, aided by the scientific method. ! also argued that although dreams appear as real as sense experience, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. ! As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about reality.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: England: Sir Walter Raleigh

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Famed English writer, poet, soldier, courtier and explorer. * Launched two failed attempts at colonization at Roanoke Island, North Carolina (1585,1587) ! Plan in 1584 for colonization in the "Colony and Dominion of Virginia" (which included the present-day states of North Carolina and Virginia) in North America ended in failure at Roanoke Island, but paved the way for subsequent colonies ! Famous for : The Discovery of Guiana and establishing the Virginia colony of Roanoke Island in 1584 “Tower of London”

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Early Modern: Europe Revolution in World View: Literature: Francois Rabelais

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* Major French Renaissance writer, doctor and humanist. He is regarded as an avant-garde writer of fantasy, satire, the grotesque, dirty jokes and bawdy songs. * “Gargantua and Pantagruel “: (In literature as well, authors began to criticize the old world view. French literature was represented by the satires of Francois Rabelais (c 1494-1553), who ridiculed European society in his often bawdy tales about two giants named Gargantua and Pantagruel) * Gargantua and Pantagruel tells the story of two giants - a father, Gargantua, and his son, Pantagruel - and their adventures, written in an amusing, extravagant, and satirical vein. * Using the pseudonym Alcofribas Nasier (an anagram of François Rabelais minus the cedilla on the c), in 1532 he published his first book, Pantagruel, that would be the start of his Gargantua series. In this book, Rabelais sings the praises of the wines from his hometown of Chinon through vivid descriptions of theeat, drink and be merry lifestyle of the main character, the giant Pantagruel and his friends. Despite the great popularity of his book, both it and his prequel book on the life of Pantagruel's father Gargantua were condemned by the academics at the Sorbonne for their unorthodox ideas and by the Roman Catholic Church for its derision of certain religious practices. Rabelais's third book, published under his own name, was also banned.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Colonization: Encomienda system

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! Trusteeship labor system that was employed by the Spanish crown during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and thePhilippines in order to consolidate their conquests. ! The system, which transplanted the model of the medieval manor into the New World, was so brutal that one of the colonizers, Bartolome de Las Calas (1474-1566), campaigned against the harsh treatment of natives ! The encomiendo system differed from the developed form of feudalism in that it did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero; Indian lands were to remain in their possession, a right that was formally protected by the Crown of Castile because at the beginning of the Conquest most of the rights of administration in the new lands went to the Castilian Queen. ! The encomenderos had the authorization to tax the people under their care and to summon them for labor, but they were not given juridical authority. In return, the encomenderos were expected to maintain order through an established military and to provide teachings in Catholicism. Conquistadors were granted trusteeship ove the indigenous people they conquered, in an expansion of familiar medieval feudal institutions, notably the commendation ceremony, which had been established in New Castile during the Reconquista. These were laws that the Crown attempted to impose in all of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and in the Philippines. Maximum size of an encomienda was three hundred Indians, though it rarely reached near to that number. The little respect that the Europeans had for the Amerindians, however, helped corrupt the system rather quickly. So, what was supposed to assist in the evangelization of the Natives and in the creation of a stable society became a blatant tool of oppression. The Crown established the encomienda system in Hispaniola in May 1493. While it reserved the right of revoking an encomienda from the hands of an unjust encomendero, it rarely did.

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Literature: William Shakespeare

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! English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. (His collection of plays and sonnets constitute a kind of secular Bible for the early modern humanistic attitude) ! Often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "The Bard"). ! His surviving works consist of 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. ! His plays have been translated into every major living language, and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who bore him three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Between 1585 and 1592 he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as his sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others. Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1590 and 1613. His early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication and artistry by the end of the sixteenth century. Next he wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest examples in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime, and in 1623 two of his former theatrical colleagues published the First Folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognized as Shakespeare's. Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the nineteenth century. The Romantics, in particular, acclaimed Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians hero-worshipped Shakespeare with a reverence that George Bernard Shaw called "bardolatry". In the twentieth century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are consistently performed and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: France: Religious War: St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre

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! Wave of Roman Catholic mob violence against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. ! The massacres marked a turning-point in the French Wars of Religion. The Huguenot political movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, and those who remained were increasingly radicalized. ! Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place six days after the wedding of the king's sister to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre. This was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris. Events began two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot military leader. Starting on 24 August 1572 (the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle) with the murder of Coligny, the massacres spread throughout Paris, and later to other cities and the countryside, lasting for several months. The exact number of fatalities is not known, but it has been estimated that over 2,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris and over 3,000 in the French provinces. Though by no means unique, "it was the worst of the century's religious massacres."

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Early Modern Europe: Thirty Year’s War: Overview

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* ! Aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal (as well as for the newer ones created afterwards), the Peace of Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. In earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. Now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of neighboring powers, be they religious or secular. ! Ended with the Treaty of Münster, a part of the wider Peace of Westphalia. ! Religious war principally fought in Germany, where it involved most of the European powers. ! Began between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, but gradually developed into a general, political war involving most of Europe. ! Was a continuation of the France-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, and in turn led to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers. ! The major impact of the Thirty Years' War, fought mostly by mercenary armies, was the extensive destruction of entire regions, denuded by the foraging armies. ! Episodes of famine and disease significantly decreased the populace of the German states and the Low Countries and Italy, while bankrupting most of the combatant powers. ! Over the course of the war, the population of the German states was reduced by about 30%. ! The edicts agreed upon during the signing of the Peace of Westphalia were instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of the sovereign nation-state. In the territory of Brandenburg, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two-thirds of the population died. The male population of the German states was reduced by almost half. The population of the Czech lands declined by a third due to war, disease, famine and the expulsion of Protestant Czechs. The Swedish armies alone destroyed 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one-third of all German towns Was ended with the Treaty of Münster, a part of the wider Peace of Westphalia. One result of the war was the enshrinement of a Germany divided among many territories all of which, despite their membership in the Empire, won de facto sovereignty. This significantly hampered the power of the Holy Roman Empire and decentralized German power. The Thirty Years' War rearranged the previous structure of power. The conflict made Spain's military and political decline visible. While Spain was preoccupied with fighting in France, Portugal, which had been under personal union with Spain for 60 years — acclaimed John IV of Braganza as king in 1640, and the House of Braganza became the new dynasty of Portugal (see Portuguese Restoration War, for further information). Meanwhile, Spain was finally forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1648, ending the Eighty Years' War. With Spain weakening, France became the dominant power in Europe, an outcome confirmed by its victory in the subsequent Franco-Spanish War. From 1643–45, during the last years of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden and Denmark fought the Torstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the great European war at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 helped establish post-war Sweden as a force in Europe.[39] The war also has a few more subtle consequences. The Thirty Years' War marked the last major religious war in mainland Europe, ending large-scale religious bloodshed in 1648. There were other religious conflicts in the years to come, but no great wars. Also, the destruction caused by mercenary soldiers defied description (see Schwedentrunk). The war did much to end the age of mercenaries that had begun with the first Landsknechts, and ushered in the age of well-disciplined national armies.

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: Church of England

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! The English Church was under papal authority for nearly a thousand years, before separating from Rome in 1534 during the reign of King Henry VIII. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church such as the Lollards, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Under pressure from Catherine's nephew, the Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Pope Clement VII refused the annulment, and, eventually, Henry, although theologically a doctrinal Catholic, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He wasexcommunicated by Pope Paul III ! Officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the oldest among the communion's thirty-eight independent national churches. ! Considers itself to be both Catholic and reformed: Catholic: in that it views itself as being an unbroken continuation of both the early apostolic and later mediæval universal church, rather than as a new formation, and in that it holds and teaches the historic Catholic faith. In its customs and liturgy it has retained more of the Catholic tradition than most other churches touched by the Protestant Reformation. Reformed: insofar as many of the principles of the early Protestant reformers as well as the subsequent Protestant Reformation have influenced it via the English Reformation and also insofar as it does not accept Papal supremacy.

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Early Modern Europe: Nation-States and Wars of Religion: England: Thirty-Nine Articles

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! 1563 - the historic defining statements of Anglican doctrine in relation to the controversies of the English Reformation; especially in the relation of Calvinist doctrine and Roman Catholic practices to the nascent Anglican doctrine of the evolving English Church. The name is commonly abbreviated as the Thirty-Nine Articles or the XXXIX Articles. ! The Church of England was searching out its doctrinal position in relation to the Roman Catholic Church and the continental Protestants. A series of defining documents were written and replaced over a period of 30 years as the doctrinal and political situation changed from the excommunication of Henry VIII in 1533, to the excommunication of Elizabeth I in 1570. Prior to King Henry's death in 1547, several statements of position were issued. The first attempt was the Ten Articles in 1536 which showed some slightly Protestant leanings; the result of an English desire for a political alliance with the German Lutheran princes. ********************************** History and impact of the Articles ********************************** ! Adherence to the Articles was made a legal requirement by the English Parliament in 1571. They are printed in the Book of Common Prayer and other Anglican prayer books. The Test Act of 1672 made adherence to the Articles a requirement for holding civil office in England (repealed in 1824). In the past, in numerous national churches and dioceses, those entering Holy Orders had to make an oath of subscription to the Articles. Clergy of the Church of England are still required to acknowledge that the Articles are "agreeable to the Word of God," but the laity are not, and no other Churches of the Anglican Communion make such a requirement.[15] The impact of the Articles on Anglican thought, doctrine, and practice has been profound. Although Article VIII itself states that the three Catholic creeds are a sufficient statement of faith, the Articles have often been perceived as the nearest thing to a supplementary confession of faith possessed by the tradition. A revised version was adopted in 1801 by the US Episcopal Church. Earlier, John Wesley, founder of the Methodists adapted the Thirty-Nine Articles for use by American Methodists in the 18th century. The resulting Articles of Religion remain official United Methodist doctrine. In Anglican discourse, the Articles are regularly cited and interpreted in order to attempt to clarify doctrine and practice. Sometimes their supposedly prescriptive tendency has been invoked in support of Anglican comprehensiveness. An important concrete manifestation of this is the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, which incorporates Articles VI, VIII, XXV, and XXXVI in its broad articulation of fundamental Anglican identity. In other circumstances, their proscriptive character has been appealed to in an attempt to delineate the parameters of acceptable belief and practice. The Articles continue to be invoked today in the Anglican Church. For example, in the ongoing debate over homosexual activity and the concomitant controversies over episcopal authority, Articles VI, XX, XXIII, XXVI, and XXXIV are regularly cited by those of various opinions.

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Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution: Mercantilism: Tariffs

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State intervention in economics is known as mercantilism – its central principle was the belief that the wealth of a nation is defined by the quantity of precious metals located within its borders ! To keep as much gold and silver as possible within the nation, kings sought to maintain a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports of commodities) ! Therefore they raised tariffs to discourage the purchase of foreign goods

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Naming the New World: Martin Waldseemuller

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German cartographer. He and Matthias Ringmann are credited with naming America.

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Early Modern Europe: Exploration: Naming the New World: Amerigo Vespucci

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! First person to demonstrate that the New World discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492 was not the eastern appendage of Asia, but rather a previously-unknown "fourth" continent. ! Widely believed that the continents of North and South America (and, by extension, the United States of America) derive their name from the feminized Latin version of his first name (see Naming of America). (The new continents were named by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemuller, who in 1516 published a map that labeled the new land masses “America” - a Latin adaptation of the first name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454-15120, a Florentine explorer who recognized that the new continents had been discovered)

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Early Modern Europe: Revolution in World View: Medicine: Andreas Vesalius

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( Sometimes also referred to as Andreas Vesal.) ! "Founder of modern human anatomy": ! "De humani corporis fabrica": He was the author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica, (1543), (On the Workings of the Human Body). This work, considering the era, showed fairly accurate drawings of various internal organs and tissues. The illustrations were done by a fellow Belgian, Jan van Calcarson, who had studied under none other than Titian himself. It was a large work of about 700 pages and he discusses the skeletal system, muscles, circulatory system, nerves and internal organs. The only really serious error in this work was his postulation of "pores" through which he supposed blood to flow from one side of the heart to the other. (Although pores are found in many vertebrates.) ! The book triggered great interest in public dissections and caused many European cities to establish anatomical theatres drawing scientists and artists alike.

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Early Modern Europe: Baroque Art and Architecture: Diego de Velazquez

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! Spanish painter who was the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV. ! Individualistic artist of the contemporary baroque period, important as a portrait artist. ! In addition to numerous renditions of scenes of historical and cultural significance, he painted scores of portraits of the Spanish royal family, other notable European figures, and commoners, culminating in the production of his masterpiece Las Meninas (1656). ! Velázquez is often cited as a key influence on the art of Édouard Manet, important when considering that Manet is often cited as the bridge between realism and Impressionism.