Week 1 Of Bio208 Final

Front 1

Pathogenicity is...

Back 1

is the ability of a pathogen to produce a disease in the host that is colonized.

Front 2

Virulence is...

Back 2

refers to the degree of a pathogen’s pathogenecity

Front 3

Portal of Entry is ...

Back 3

The specific route by which a particular pathogen gains access to the body

Front 4

Parental Route is...

Back 4

The Route of Parenteral route is the route of penetration by which some microorganisms can gain access to tissues by inoculation through
the skin and mucous membranes in bites, injections, and other wounds

Front 5

Most microorganisms cannot penetrate intact skin; instead they do what?

Back 5

they enter hair follicles and sweat ducts.

Front 6

If the pathogen is more virulent, then does it take more or less pathogens to cause an infeciton/disease

Back 6

it takes fewer pathogens

Front 7

What are the two abbreviations in which virulence can be measured

Back 7

LD50 & ID50

Front 8

LD50 means?
ID50 means?

Back 8

LD50 means- it is a lethal dose for 50% of the inoculated hosts

ID50- infection dose for 50% of the inoculated hosts (the dose that will cause an infection in half of all exposed hosts)

Front 9

What are Adherence Factors (definition)

Back 9

They are the factors regarding how the pathogen attaches to the host

Front 10

Types of Adherence Factors?

Back 10

1. Adhesins, surface projections on a pathogen, adhere to complementary receptors on the host cells
2. Glycoproteins or lipoproteins, types of adhesins- which are frequently associated with fimbriae
3. Biofilms also provide a mode of attachment to host cells as well as resistance to antimicrobial agents

Front 11

Capsules...

Back 11

some pathogens have capsules that prevent them from being phagocytized by certain immune cells (streptococcus pneumoniae)

Front 12

What are four types of Portals of Entry

Back 12

Mucous Membranes
Skin
parental route
Preferred portal of Entry

Front 13

What do adhesins/ligands bind to? what are examples of frimbriae and non-fimbriae

Back 13

They bind to receptors
--Fimbriae: Escherichia Coli
--Non-Fimbriae: Staphylococcus

Front 14

What type of bacteria produce endotoxin

Back 14

Gram Negative Bacteria only

Front 15

When the dead Gram-negative bacteria releases endotoxin, what happens?

Back 15

It induces effects such as fever, inflammation, diarrhea, shock, and blood coagulation

Front 16

Source of Exotoxins?
Composition of Exotoxins?
Neutralized by Antitoxin?
Exotoxin can be LD50?

Back 16

Gram Positive & Negative Species
Protein
Yes
Can be less than 1ng/kg

Front 17

Source of Endotoxins?
Endotoxin Relation to Microbe?
Composition of Endotoxins?
Fever?
Neutralized by Antitoxin?
Endotoxin can be LD50?

Back 17

Gram Negative
Outer Membrane
Lipid A
Yes
No
Relatively Large

Front 18

Second Line of Defense, the innate immune cells, operate when and are composed of?

Back 18

--Operate when pathogens penetrate the skin or mucous membranes
--Composed of cells, antimicrobial chemicals, and processes (many of these components are contained or originate in the blood)

Front 19

The Body's defenses include what two types of immunity and what are there general descriptions?

Back 19

1) Innate Immunity - quick & General
--- include the first two lines of defense
2) Adaptive Immunity- slower & Specific

Front 20

Within Innate Immunity, what does the first line of defense consist of?

Back 20

-Intact skin
-mucous membranes and their secretions
-Normal microbiota

Front 21

Within Innate Immunity, what does the second line of defense consist of?

Back 21

-phagocytes (neutrophils, esoinophils, dendritic cells, and macrophages)
-Inflammation
-Fever
-Antimicrobial substances

Front 22

Within Adaptive Immunity, what does the second line of defense consist of?

Back 22

-Specialized lymphocytes (T and B cells)
-Antibodies

Front 23

What are the two major layers of skin?

Back 23

Epidermis and Dermis

Front 24

Describe the epidermis

Back 24

- consists of multiple layers of tightly packed cells
------- few pathogens can penetrate these layers
--------shedding of dead skin cells removes microorganisms
-Epidermal dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens

Front 25

Describe the dermis

Back 25

-Collagen fibers help skin resist abrasions that could introduce microorganisms

Front 26

Describe the jobs of the following components of mucous membranes?
1. Mucus
2. Goblet Cells
3. Ciliary Escalator

Back 26

1. Mucus traps microbes
2. Goblet cells produce mucus
3. Ciliary escalator- microbes trapped in mucus are transported away from the lungs

Front 27

Describe other anti-micronial mechanisms in the first line of defense:
1. Conjuctiva
2. Mouth
3. GI Mucosa
4. Genitouriary Mucosa

Back 27

1. Lacrimal appartus uses tears to wash eye (contains lysozyme)
2. The Mouth contains saliva (also contains lysozyme and washes microbes off surfaces)
3. GI Mucosa in which peristalsis moves microbes out of the body, like the low pH of stomach
4. Genitourinary Mucosa are urine flow and vaginal secretions which move microbes out of the body

Front 28

pH of skin, gastric juice, vaginal secretions

Back 28

Skin pH - low (3-5)
Gastric Juice pH- low pH (1.2-3)
Vaginal Secretion pH- Low pH (3-5)

Front 29

Give the best definition of "Microbial Antagonism"

Back 29

The presence of normal microbiota that protect the body by competing with pathogens in a variety of ways to prevent pathogens from invading the body

Front 30

The second line of defense operates when? and is composed of?

Back 30

--operates when pathogens penetrate the skin or mucous membranes
--composed of cells, antimicrobial chemicals, and processes
-----------many of these components are contained or originate in the blood

Front 31

What elements are formed in blood?

Back 31

Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, Platelets

Front 32

The Job of each of the following Elements
1. Red Blood Cells
2. Neutrophils
3. Basophiles
4. Eosinophils
5. Monocytes
6. Dendritic Cells
7. Natural Killer Cells
8. T Cells
9. B Cells
10. Platelets

Back 32

1. Transport O2 and CO2
2. Phagocytosis
3. Histamine
4. Kill Parasites
5. Phagocytosis
6. Phagocytosis
7. Destroy target cells
8. Cell-mediated immunity
9. Produce Antibodies
10. Blood Clotting

Front 33

List the types of White Blood Cells components from Most to Least prominent

Back 33

1. Neutrophils (60-70%)
2. Lymphocytes (20-25%)
3. Monocytes (3-8%)
4. Eosinophils (2-4%)
5. Basophils (.5-1%)

Front 34

What are phagocytes?

Back 34

Cells capable of phagocytosis

Front 35

What are the six stages of phagocytosis

Back 35

1. Chemotaxis
2. Adherence
3. Ingestion
4. Maturation
5. Killing
6. Elimination

Front 36

Important Phagocytes and At what point in the infection

Back 36

1. Neutrophils
--- Early during infection
2. Macrophages, tissue or circulating
---Later stages of infection
3. Dendritic Cells, resident or migratory
--- Throughout infection

Front 37

List steps of phagocytosis

Back 37

1. Chemotaxis and adherence of microbe to phagocyte
2. Ingenstion of microbe by phagocyte
3. Formation of a phagosome
4. Fusion of the phagosome with a lysosome to form a phagolysosome
5. Digestion of ingested microbe by enzyme
6. Formation of residual body containing indigestible material
7. Discharge of waste materials

Front 38

What are some additional immune mechanisms in the "second line of defense"

Back 38

-complement
-inflammation & fever
- interferons

Front 39

What chemicals are released by damaged cells and what are their effects

Back 39

-Histamine-----Vasodialtion, increased permeability of blood vessels
-Kinins-----Vasodialtion, increased permeability of blood vessels
-Prostaglandins ----- intensify histamine and kinin effect
- Leukotrienes ----- increased permeability of blood vessels, phagocytic attachment

Front 40

What is a benefit of fever?

Back 40

Induced production of host iron-binding proteins (transferrin and Lactoferrin which reduces free iron concentration in the host)

Front 41

How does Skin's perspiration defend against pathogens?

Back 41

-Salt inhibits growth of pathogens
-Antimicrobial peptides act against microorganisms
-Lysozyme destroys cell wall of bacteria

Front 42

Describe the Mucous Membrane's two distinct layers!

Back 42

-Epithelium
------Thin, outer covering of the mucous membranes
------Epithelial cells are living
------Tightly packed to prevent entry of pathogens
------Continual shedding of cells carries away microorganisms
-Deeper connective layer that supports the epithelium

Front 43

What is the Lacrimal Apparatus?

Back 43

a group of structures that produce and tears

Front 44

What is the purpose of blinking with tears?

Back 44

Blinking spreads the tears to wash surfaces of the eye

Front 45

Define Normal Microbiota?

Back 45

Microorganisms that colonize the surfaces of the human body without normally causing disease. They may be resident or transient- and often compete with potential pathogens

Front 46

Define Microbial Antagonism?

Back 46

Normal condition in which establish microbiota use up available nutrients adn space, reducing the ability of arriving pathogens to colonize

Front 47

What activities of normal microbiota make it hard for pathogens to compete with them?

Back 47

--Consumption of nutrients
--Create an environment unfavorable to other microorganisms
--Help stimulate the body’s second line of defense
--Promote overall health by providing vitamins to host

Front 48

How do antimicrobial peptides work? where are they present?

Back 48

-Present in skin, mucous membranes, neutrophils,
-Work by
-----1. punch holes in cytoplasmic membranes of pathogens
-----2. interrupt internal signaling or enzymatic action
-----3. recruit leukocytes

Front 49

Describe Plasma?

Back 49

-Plasma is mostly water contain electrolytes, dissolved gases, nutrients, and a variety of proteins.
-It is involved in inflammation and blood clotting

Front 50

What is serum?

Back 50

Serum is essentially just plasma fluid when clotting factors are removed

Front 51

What are Formed Elements? What are the different types?

Back 51

-cells and cell fragments suspended in plasma
-Erthyrocytes, Platelets, Leukocytes

Front 52

What do Erthryocytes do?

Back 52

Carry oxygen and carbon dioxide in teh blood

Front 53

What do platelets do?

Back 53

They are involved in blood clotting

Front 54

What do leukocytes do?

Back 54

They are involved in defending the body against invaders
--dividing into granulocytes and agranulocytes

Front 55

What are granulocytes, what types are there, what do they stain

Back 55

-Granulocytes are a type of leukocyte
-Three Types
-----Basophils – stain blue with basic dye methylene blue
-----Eosinophils – stain red/orange with acidic dye eosin
-----Neutrophils – stain lilac with mix of acidic and basic dyes

Front 56

What do Neutrophisl and Eosinophils do?

Back 56

They phagocytize pathogens and are capable of diapesis

Front 57

What is Diapedisis

Back 57

Process whereby leukocytes leave blood vessels in tact by squeezing between lining cells

Front 58

Describe Agranulocytes

Back 58

- A type of leukocyte in which the cytoplasm appears uniform under a light microscope
--Two types: Lymphocytes & Monocytes

Front 59

Describe Lymphocytes and Monocytes

Back 59

Lymphocytes are mostly involved in adaptive immunity

Monocytes will leave the blood and mature into macrophages

Front 60

What do Lab analysises of Leukocytes indicate? give examples (allergies, bacterial, viral)

Back 60

-Differential white blood cell count can signal signs of disease
----Increased eosinophils indicate allergies or parasitic worm infection
-----Bacterial diseases often show increase in leukocytes and neutrophils
-----Viral infections show increase in lymphocytes

Front 61

Define Macrophages

Back 61

Phagocytic cells of the second line of defense. Their initial function is to devour foreign objects, including bacteria, fungi, spores, and dust as well as dead body cells

Front 62

Explain Wandering Macrophages

Back 62

Macrophages that leave the blood via diapedesis and perform their scavenger function while traveling throughout the body, including extracellular spaces

Front 63

What does "non Phagocytosis" entail?

Back 63

The killing of a pathogen without phagocytosis (does not have to be ingested)

Front 64

How do Eosinophils nonphagocytically kill?

Back 64

-They attack parasitic helminths (worms)
-1. attach to the worm's surface
-2. Secrete extracellular protein toxins onto the surface of the parasite to weaken or kill it

Front 65

How do Natural Killer Lymphocytes (NK) do their killing?

Back 65

-It is a type of defense leukocyte of innate immunity
-works by secreting toxins onto the surfaces of virally infected cells and neoplasma (tumors)
-Can identify and spare normal body cells (because they similar membrane proteins as NK)

Front 66

What are the other ways neutrophils kill besides devouring pathogens?

Back 66

1. Enzymes in a neutrophil's cytoplasmic membrane add electrosn to oxygen, creating highly reactive superoxide radical O2- and hydrogen peroxide.
---Then another enzyme converts those two radicals into hypochlorite, which can kill nearby invaders
2. Neutrophils commit suicide and as the cell disintegrates, their nuclei components mix with cytoplasmic granule membranes and proteins to form NETs.
-NETs trap both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, immobilizing them, and sequestering them along with antimicrobial peptides, which kill the bacteria

Front 67

Explain the Nonspecific chemical defense: Toll Like Receptors

Back 67

--TLRs are integral proteins of the cytoplasmic membranes of phagocytic cells that act as an early warning system, triggering your body's responses to a number of molecules that are shared by various bacterial or viral pathogen and are absent in humans, also known as PAMPS.
-- Responses include:
----------Apoptosis
----------Secretion of inflammatory mediators
---------- Production of stimulants of adaptive immune response
--

Front 68

PAMPS

Back 68

Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns
-- molecules that are shared by a variety of microbes, are absent in humans, and trigger immune responses

Front 69

Explain the nonspecific chemical defense, NOD Proteins

Back 69

A set of receptors for microbial molecules but these proteins are located inside the cell rather than as part of a cell's cytoplasmic membrane.
-- Can trigger responses such as inflammation, apoptosis, and other innate immune responses

Front 70

Explain the nonspecific chemical defense, Interferons, their side effects, and types

Back 70

These are protein molecules released by host cells to nonspecifically inhibit the spread of viral infections.
--So nonspecific that an interferon produced against one viral invader, will somewhat protect against infections by other types of viruses
- can cause malaise, muscle ahces, chills, headache, fever
-Activate natural killer Lymphocytes and trigger protective steps in neighboring uninfected cells
-two types -
1. Type I: Alpha and Beta
2. Type II: Gamma

Front 71

What secretes Alpha Interferons and BEta Interferons

Back 71

ALPHA- virally infected monocytes, macrophages, and some lymphocytes
BETA- firoblasts (found in cartilage, tendon, and bone connective tissues)

Front 72

Give some deets on Gamma Interferons

Back 72

- Activated by T-lymphocytes and by natural killer lymphocytes.
-appear later than the ALpha or Beta Interferon
-

Front 73

What is the complement system?

Back 73

A set of serum proteins designated numerically according to the order of their discovery.
-These proteins first act as opsonins and chemotactic factors, they indirectly trigger inflammation and fever.
-- the end result of full complement activation is lysis of foreign cells

Front 74

What are the three pathways of the Complement System

Back 74

1. Classical pathway (antibodies activate complement)
2. Alternate pathway (pathogens or pathogenic products activate complement)
3. Lectin pathway (microbial polysaccharides bind to activating molecules

Front 75

What is the one end product of a full cascade?

Back 75

A membrane attack complex (MAC) - which forms a circular hole in the pathogen's membrane
-Production of Numerous MACS leads to lysis in a wide variety of bacterial and eukaryotic pathogens
Gram negative bacteria are particularly sensitive to the production of MACS (cuz their outer membranes are exposed and susceptible)

Front 76

Hwo do the body's own cells withstand the action of complement systems?

Back 76

Membrane-bound proteins on the body's cell bind with and break down activated complement proteins, thereby interrupting the complement cascade before damage can occur.

Front 77

Explain Inflammation?

Back 77

Your body's nonspecific response to tissue damage from a variety of causes
-Characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain
-Two types
1.Acute
2.Long-lasting (chronic)

Front 78

Talk about Acute Inflammation

Back 78

-Develops quickly and is short lived
-Is typically beneficial
-Is important in the second line of defense
--Dilation and increased permeability of the blood vessels
--Migration of phagocytes
--Tissue repair

Front 79

Talk about Fever

Back 79

-A body temperature over 37C
-Results when pyrogens trigger the hypothalamus to increase the body’s core temperature
-Various types of pyrogens
----Bacterial toxins
----Cytoplasmic contents of bacteria released by lysis
----Antibody-antigen complexes
((these signal for the production of interleukin-I (IL1)

Front 80

Explain difference between leukocytosis and leukopenia

Back 80

--During many infections, the number of leukocytes increases
(leukocytosis);

-- some infections are characterized by a decrease in leukocytes
(leukopenia).

Front 81

Upon activation, what do monocytes do?

Back 81

monocytes enlarge and become wandering
macrophages and fixed macrophages

Front 82

Chemotaxis is ....?

Back 82

is the process by which phagocytes are attracted to
and physically move toward microorganisms. Phagocytes are drawn to regions of infection
by chemokines (a type of cytokine) or by components of the microorganisms themselves
called (PAMPs)