Vocabulary And Multiple Choice Questions - Chapter 7

Front 1

Intrusion error

Back 1

A memory error in which you recall elements not part of the original episode that you are trying to remember (and so other knowledge 'intrudes” into your recall). (page 242)

Front 2

DRM procedure

Back 2

A commonly used experimental procedure for eliciting and studying memory errors. In this procedure, a person sees or hears a list of words that are all related to a single theme; however, the word that names the theme is not itself included. Nonetheless, people are very likely to remember later that the theme word was presented. (page 244)

Front 3

Schema (pl. schemata)

Back 3

Knowledge describing what is typical or frequent in a particular situation. For example, a 'kitchen schema” would stipulate that a stove and refrigerator are likely to be present, whereas a coffeemaker may be or may not be present, and a piano is likely not to be present. (page 244)

Front 4

Misinformation effect

Back 4

An effect in which reports about an earlier event are influenced by misinformation someone received after experiencing the event. In the extreme, misinformation can be used to create false memories concerning an entire event that, in truth, never occurred. (page 250)

Front 5

Decay theory of forgetting

Back 5

The hypothesis that with the passage of time, memories may fade or erode. (page 257)

Front 6

Interference theory of forgetting

Back 6

The hypothesis that materials are lost from memory because of interference from other materials also in memory. Interference that is caused by materials learned prior to the learning episode is called 'proactive interference;” interference that is caused by materials learned after the learning episode is called 'retroactive interference.” (page 257)

Front 7

Retrieval failure

Back 7

A mechanism that probably contributes to a great deal of forgetting. Retrieval failure occurs when a memory is, in fact, in long-term storage, but you are unable to locate that memory when trying to retrieve it. (page 257)

Front 8

Autobiographical memory

Back 8

The aspect of memory that records the episodes and events in a person's life. (page 264)

Front 9

Self-reference effect

Back 9

The tendency to have better memory for information relevant to oneself than for other sorts of material. (page 265)

Front 10

Self-schema

Back 10

The set of interwoven beliefs and memories that constitute your knowledge about yourself. (page 265)

Front 11

Consolidation

Back 11

The biological process through which new memories are 'cemented in place,” acquiring some degree of permanence through the creation of new (or altered) neural connections. (page 266)

Front 12

Flashbulb memory

Back 12

A memory of extraordinary clarity, typically for some highly emotional event, retained despite the passage of many years. (page 267)

Front 13

Permastore

Back 13

A hypothesized state in which individual memories seem to be held in storage forever (hence, the state can be considered 'permanent storage”). (page 275)

Front 14

Schemata do all of the following EXCEPT

a) help us understand a situation.

b) help fill in gaps in our recollection.

c) encourage certain types of errors in our perception and memory.

d) prevent us from confusing an event with other, similar events.

Back 14

d) prevent us from confusing an event with other, similar events.

Schemata cause us to regularize our memories, and hence we may confuse one event with another.

Front 15

Which of the following is likely to be most important in creating the “narrowing” of focus often found in memories of emotional events?

a) increases of glucose during emotional episodes

b) Emotional events are more likely to be perceived as significant, and therefore closely attended.

c) The emotion is often caused by one particular stimulus, which is then given the majority of one’s attention.

d) Emotional events are seen as very personally relevant.

Back 15

C) The emotion is often caused by one particular stimulus, which is then given the majority of one’s attention.

Narrowing occurs because attention is drawn to a particular stimulus.

Front 16

NARROWING OCCURS BECAUSE

Back 16

ATTENTION IS DRAWN TO A PARTICULAR STIMULUS

Front 17

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN ONE'S ATTENTION IS DRAWN TO A PARTICULAR STIMULUS

Back 17

NARROWING OCCURS

Front 18

Which hypothesis about forgetting points to the fact that over time, relevant brain cells die off and connections between memories gradually weaken?

a) the decay hypothesis

b) the retrieval-failure hypothesis

c) the misinformation hypothesis

d) the interference hypothesis

Back 18

a) the decay hypothesis

Decay involves the loss of information over time and hence leads to forgetting.

Front 19

____________ involves the loss of information over time and hence leads to forgetting.

Back 19

DECAY

Front 20

Which of the following statements is the most accurate?

a) There is little or no relation between memory confidence and memory accuracy.

b) People who are more confident in their memories are likely to be more accurate.

c) Although juries tend to believe that memory confidence of witnesses is a good sign of memory accuracy, judges do not.

d) Indicating that someone has remembered correctly has no effect on memory confidence.

Back 20

a) There is little or no relation between memory confidence and memory accuracy.

People can be very confident of memories that are not accurate. Feedback that a memory is correct can increase confidence, but this does not affect the accuracy since it comes after the fact.

Front 21

Rugby players’ recall of the names of their teammates suffered based on the number of intervening games, not based on the mere passage of time. This study demonstrates that

a) interference is a major contributor to forgetting.

b) decay is a major contributor to forgetting.

c) separate events are stored as separate, contained units in memory.

d) a change in the players’ perspective leads to retrieval failure in recall.

Back 21

a) interference is a major contributor to forgetting.

It is interference because it does not matter how much time has passed. All that matters is how many games have already occurred.

Front 22

Which is LEAST well established as a contributor to the forgetting of traumatic events?

a) extreme stress disrupting the biological processes of memory consolidation

b) alcohol and drug use

c) deliberate forgetting, or repression, on the part of the traumatized individual

d) sleep deprivation

Back 22

c) deliberate forgetting, or repression, on the part of the traumatized individual

Repression is a very controversial issue and hence is the least likely explanation for forgetting an event.

Front 23

Which statement pertaining to the overall state of memory is FALSE?

a) Errors in memory are more common than accurate memories.

b) Some forgetting is beneficial because it allows us to generalize.

c) Schemata allow us to direct our attention more efficiently so we can encode more useful memories.

d) There are principles that apply to all of memory, as well as principles that apply only to specific sorts of memory.

Back 23

a) Errors in memory are more common than accurate memories.

Most memories are accurate because they capture the gist of things. It is only when dealing with the details that they become false.

Front 24

WHEN IS A MEMORY MORE LIKELY TO BECOME FALSE?

Back 24

WHEN DEALING WITH THE DETAILS. GENERAL MEMORIES ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE ACCURATE

Front 25

Based on current knowledge, which of the following seems the LEAST well-established reason for a traumatic childhood memory to come to light after many years?

a) There was retrieval failure, but a cue finally appeared that triggered the memory.

b) The memory was repressed because it was too painful, but it has now been recovered.

c) The memory was consciously remembered all along, but it was not talked about before.

d) The memory is false and was created, probably with the help of suggestion from an outside party.

Back 25

b) The memory was repressed because it was too painful, but it has now been recovered.

repression is a very controversial topic.

Front 26

Memories that are not lost within a few years of their acquisition

a) will mostly be lost within ten years.

b) have probably achieved a state of permastore.

c) never need to be rehearsed to stay in memory.

d) tend to pop into one’s thoughts much more frequently than they initially did.

Back 26

b) have probably achieved a state of permastore.

Permastore relates to memories that are not likely to be lost.

Front 27

__________ relates to memories that are not likely to be lost.

Back 27

PERMASTORE

Front 28

Which of these features reliably distinguishes false memories and true memories?

a) difference in speed of recounting false memories and true memories

b) level of emotionality in recalling the memory

c) level of detail in the recalled memory

d) Nothing that we know of reliably distinguishes true and false memories.

Back 28

d) Nothing that we know of reliably distinguishes true and false memories.

Results from studies show that true and false memories do not differ in the amount of detail, speed of recall, or level of emotionality. Thus there is no single characteristic that reliably distinguishes them.

Front 29

Which of the following is LEAST likely to promote misremembering?

a) imagining what may have happened if an event had gone differently

b) being exposed to misinformation after the event

c) having some involvement in an event rather than just witnessing it

d) the passage of time

Back 29

c) having some involvement in an event rather than just witnessing it

If the event is personally relevant, it is unlikely to result in misremembering.

Front 30

According to interference theory, most forgetting is attributable to the fact that

a) due to a change in perspective, you lose paths to the information.

b) emotion causes the disruption of memories acquired earlier.

c) memories and memory connections fade with time.

d) new learning disrupts or overwrites old learning.

Back 30

d) new learning disrupts or overwrites old learning.

Interference arises because the new memories interfere or impede old memories.

Front 31

Results of the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure demonstrate

a) the role of perceptual priming in recall.

b) the importance of having multiple retrieval paths in memory.

c) intrusion errors based on semantic knowledge.

d) that confidence is a direct index of accuracy of recall.

Back 31

c) intrusion errors based on semantic knowledge.

people are likely to infer a word was on the list when it was not.

Front 32

In the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure, participants are asked to remember a list of words like “bed, snooze, awake, tired, dream, rest”—all words concerning the topic of sleep. However, the word “sleep” is not on the list. After this procedure, participants

a) recall that they heard the word “sleep” on the original list, unless they are explicitly warned to be careful.

b) recall the word “sleep” being on the list even if they were explicitly warned to be careful.

c) are less confident in their recognition of “sleep” than in their recognition of words actually on the list.

d) are likely to say “sleep” was on the list in a recognition test but not during a recall test.

Back 32

b) recall the word “sleep” being on the list even if they were explicitly warned to be careful.

This is a task that is designed to induce false memories by priming a concept that is not explicitly presented.

Front 33

In a basic-recall task, participants read a story about a character named Nancy and her behavior at a party. During recall, participants

a) made fewer intrusion errors if they received a prologue giving context to Nancy’s behavior.

b) remembered more details and made inferences about the story if they received a prologue giving additional context.

c) remembered extra events that did not make much sense in the context of the story.

d) were susceptible to leading questions unless they received a prologue giving context.

Back 33

b) remembered more details and made inferences about the story if they received a prologue giving additional context.

The prologue creates a context, which is then used to generate details, even ones that were not explicitly mentioned in the paragraph.

Front 34

While under hypnosis, people

a) are quite accurate at distinguishing true and false memories.

b) tend to remember more about the event they are being questioned about.

c) tend to talk more about the event they are being questioned about.

d) are less susceptible to the misinformation effect.

Back 34

c) tend to talk more about the event they are being questioned about.

Hypnosis makes people open to suggestion, and hence they are likely to add details to an event that they are being questioned about.

Front 35

The 1995 bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City was a very emotional event that, for many people, led to a flashbulb memory. Details of the day of this event are likely to be remembered MOST accurately by

a) an individual from a neighboring state who had not previously known of the building.

b) an individual who worked in the immediate vicinity and narrowly escaped harm, questioned immediately.

c) an individual who worked in the immediate vicinity and narrowly escaped harm, questioned one year later.

d) a closely involved individual who expressed extreme confidence in her memory one year later.

Back 35

b) an individual who worked in the immediate vicinity and narrowly escaped harm, questioned immediately.

The best memory is at short retention intervals by people who were involved in the incident.

Front 36

Which of the following claims about false memories is INCORRECT?

a) Some individuals are more susceptible than others to false memories.

b) Some false memories can be implanted in children, but not ones about major traumatic events.

c) It is easier to implant plausible memories than implausible ones.

d) It is easier to implant a false memory if the false suggestion is repeated, rather than delivered just a single time.

Back 36

b) Some false memories can be implanted in children, but not ones about major traumatic events.

Children are very susceptible to misinformation and hence can have false memories implanted about major traumatic events.

Front 37

Which of the following is likely to INCREASE the intrusion of schematic knowledge in later recall?

a) thinking about how the event unfolded, rather than what it meant

b) making an effort to fill in the gaps in one’s memories

c) decreasing the retention interval

d) thinking about what was distinctive, rather than typical, about the episode

Back 37

b) making an effort to fill in the gaps in one’s memories

Trying to fill in gaps is likely to increase the use of schemata in order to guess what might have happened.

Front 38

Intrusion errors are NOT typically caused by

a) words or ideas associated with the material being learned.

b) background knowledge brought to a situation.

c) maintenance rehearsal.

d) thoughts about an event that take place after that event has occurred.

Back 38

c) maintenance rehearsal.

Maintenance rehearsal involves keeping things in mind for a short period of time. There is no time for intrusion errors, which arise when retrieving something from long-term memory.

Front 39

Which of the following would NOT be due to schemata?

a) During recall of a story taken from the folklore of Native Americans, British participants systematically change the facts to be more in line with their worldview.

b) Witnesses to a crime blur together in their memory what they saw with what they heard from another witness.

c) Participants remember seeing books on the shelves in an academic office, even when there were none.

d) When people give accounts of past events, they are easily able to fill in the holes in their memory by making (usually correct) inferences.

Back 39

b) Witnesses to a crime blur together in their memory what they saw with what they heard from another witness.

This is not due to schemata because it involves taking pieces of information from the same crime and mixing them together. This does not involve applying a crime schema to change details.

Front 40

Which of the following is FALSE about autobiographical memories?

a) People will bias recollection of past events away from current characteristics.

b) Recollection is better for memories that seem more directly relevant to the self.

c) When an event is forgotten, reconstruction tends to favor seeing the self in a positive light.

d) Reconstruction of past events will often be consistent with current views of self.

Back 40

a) People will bias recollection of past events away from current characteristics.

People will actually bias their memories toward current characteristics for autobiographical memories.

Front 41

In one study, participants saw a video of a car wreck and were then asked questions about what they had seen. Participants who heard the question, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other”

a) were likely to create false memories.

b) gave speed estimates equal to those of participants who had heard “smashed into each other” if both groups were questioned immediately.

c) were less likely than those individuals who had heard “smashed into each other” to recall that they had seen broken glass.

d) gave lower speed estimates than participants who had heard “smashed into each other” only if both groups were questioned after a one-week delay.

Back 41

c) were less likely than those individuals who had heard “smashed into each other” to recall that they had seen broken glass.

“Smashed into each” other led people to remember the cars as traveling faster and hence was likely to elicit the memory of broken glass.

Front 42

When people can tell us which things they actually remember and which they just know, what advantage does this give us?

a) It tells us with certainty which memories are true and which are false.

b) It gives us some indication of which memories are more likely to be true.

c) It tells us how much attention we should pay to memory confidence.

d) It does not give us any advantage.

Back 42

b) It gives us some indication of which memories are more likely to be true.

Memories for things people actually remember are likely to be accurate relative to memories for things that they just know.

Front 43

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

a) Memory connections can both help and hurt memory accuracy.

b) When events are misremembered, they tend to be remembered as more normal, or more consistent with expectations, than they actually were.

c) Elements of a particular episode are stored in a “file” that separates them from elements of other episodes.

d) The greater the density of connections associated with a particular episode, the more likely intrusion errors are to occur.

Back 43

c) Elements of a particular episode are stored in a “file” that separates them from elements of other episodes.
Episodic memories intermingle with other memories.