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54 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ideal annua avg vine temperature
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57dF
range 50-68 |
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necessary avg summer temp to achieve ripening
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Red: 70dF
White: 66dF |
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how are degree days calculated
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multiply the days in each month of the growing season (April 1-October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month
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the heat summation index relies on what
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degree days
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how many degree day regions are there
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5
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list the ranges of degree days in each region
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Region I: <2,500 degree days F
Region II: 2,500-3,000 Region III: 3,000-3,500 Region IV: 3,500-4,000 Region V: >4,000 |
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what is the minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture
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~1,300 hours
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how many annual inches of rainfall does a vine require annually to produce an adequate crop
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20-30
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what is head-training
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no permanent cordon; trunk ends in a knob, or head. may be supported a simple stake or not at all. head-trained vines may technically be trellised, but head-training is commonly seen as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines
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what is cordon-training
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vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. grows thick/gnarled over time; shoots emerge from each annually. requires trellising system
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PRUNING:
head trained vs. cordon trained |
head-trained vines may be spur or cane pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned.
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cane-pruning vs. spur pruning
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If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane.
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describe guyot training
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The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The Guyot Double variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides.
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describe gobelet system
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spur-pruning/head-trained. ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello; in Spain, en vaso. Australians often refer to such vines as “bush vines”.
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describe the cordon de royat system
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spur-pruned/cordon-trained. Preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne. similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane.
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describe the Geneva and lyre systems
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cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy
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does vertical shoot positioning apply to spur or cane pruning systems?
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both
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describe the tendone system
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known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned.
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list the 4 main groups of vine diseases
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1) Fungal: mildew/mold, found in warm/damp climates, attacking root system or canopy
2) Viral: spread through grafting or transmitted by insects; less destructive but no known cure for many 3) Bacterial: less common but difficult to control. can be devastating. 4) Phytoplasma: caused by phytoplasma (pathogens similar to bacteria). spread via insect vector or rootstock grafting |
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phylloxera: name the aphid
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Daktulosphaira vitifoliae
-aphid feeds on the vine roots |
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name for insect vectors
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mealy bugs
nematodes glassy-winged sharpshooters |
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powdery mildew is also known as
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oidium
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describe powdery mildew
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FUNGAL DISEASE
affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine. controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides |
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downy mildew is also known as
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peronospora
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describe downy mildew
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FUNGAL DISEASE Plasmopara viticola, the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an “oil spot” on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. Arid regions prohibit its growth. The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture, a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.
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what is the bordeaux mixture and what does it treat?
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mix of copper sulfate, water, and lime.
used to combat downy mildew |
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eutypa dieback is also called
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dead arm
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describe eutypa dieback
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FUNGAL DISEASE caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the “dead arm”. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the “dead arm”, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola, manifests as a similar disease.
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esca is also known as
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black measles
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describe esca
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FUNGAL DISEASE
Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers. |
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describe black rot
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FUNGAL DISEASE
Native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays. |
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describe bunch rot
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FUNGAL DISEASES
In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot. Known in its malevolent form as “grey rot”, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate. |
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describe Pierce's disease
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BACTERIAL DISEASE
Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion. |
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what disease does the glassy-winged sharpshooter spread?
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Pierce's Disease
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crown gall is also called
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black knot
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describe crown gall
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BACTERIAL DISEASE
The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease. The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood. |
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describe bacterial blight
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BACTERIAL DISEASE
Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture. |
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describe leafroll virus
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VIRAL DISEASE
Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening. Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed. |
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describe fanleaf degeneration
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VIRAL DISEASE
Fanleaf Degeneration, a “nepovirus” spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished. |
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describe flavescence doree
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PHYTOPLASMA DISEASE
A form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread. |
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what is IPM?
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integrated pest management. sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy.
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what is VINEA?
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a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe.
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what is OSCW?
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Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe. Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic, must certify both the fruit and the winery.
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what is CCSW?
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California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CCSW) provides incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement. While less than 10% of California’s wineries use any amount of organically grown grapes, over 60% of the state’s vineyard acreage has been assessed (if not certified) for CCSW compatibility.
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describe biodynamic viticulture
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takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon. Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire, biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil. Biodiversity and soil rotation are emphasized. The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally.
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most yeasts will not act below ____ degrees F, and will die above ____ degress F
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50 dF
113 dF |
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describe malolactic fermentation
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in MLF, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins. It may also be prevented or shortened by removing the organisms responsible. Malolactic fermentation often occurs in red wines, and most of the world’s fuller styles of white wines undergo either full or partial malo. Lighter, high-acid whites are sometimes treated to a degree of malo, although producers of certain varieties, like Riesling, scrupulously avoid it. Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation.
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describe carbonic maceration
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alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO2) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. In Beaujolais, where the process is often used for nouveau and other wines, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it, and will ferment normally. The ensuing carbon dioxide will blanket the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will eventually explode, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work
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what is cold soak/
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a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may “cold soak” grapes for nearly a week before fermentation.
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what are the 3 methods of rose production
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1) blending (inferior)
2) limited skin maceration: leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color. 3) saignee/bleeding: bleed juice from a maceration, producing rose as a byproduct of red wine fermentation. pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. 4) direct pressing of whole red grapes of cluster, producing the palest of roses |
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what are the genus and species for oak from french trees?
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Quercus robur
Quercus petraea (tight wood grain developed through slow growth) |
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what are the genus and species for oak from american trees?
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Quercus alba
wider grain, white oak |
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french oak vs. american oak
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french: tight wood grain
american: wider wood grain Traditionally, French oak is split rather than sawn, a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel. American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the “coconut” character of American oak. The drying process of the green staves also varies between European and American coopers. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques |
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name the 3 stages of oak barrel production
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1. chauffage (warming):
2. cintrage (shaping) 3. bousinage (toasting): light/med/heavy. while the level of lactones (responsible for “oaky” aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin |
