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63 Cards in this Set

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  • Back

Elements that are macro minerals
(evaluated in terms of %)

Ca
P
Mg
K
Na
Cl
S

Elements that are micro minerals
(evaluated in terms of mg/kg)

B, Co, Cr, Cu, Fl, Fe, I, Mn, Mo, Se, Si, Zn

What are vitamins?

essential organic nutrients required in small amounts



Cannot be synthesized by the body, must be obtained through diet, rumen bacteria, and sun



Required for growth, maintenance, reproduction, and lactation

2 classes of vitamins

Fat Soluble (stored in tissues) and Water Soluble (not stored in tissues)

Examples of Fat Soluble vitamins

Vitamins A, D, E, and K

Examples of Water Soluble vitamins

B-vitamins and Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

What is an International Unit (IU)?

measures biological activity, or effect, of a substance. Used to quantify vitamins.

Sources and function of vitamin K

Sources: green leafy forages, soybeans, fish meal, liver, rumen, intestinal bacteria, synthetic compounds



Function: blood clotting, synthesis of prothrombin in liver (which converts fibrinogen to fibrin)

Signs of Vitamin K deficiency

- generally not seen in livestock or companion animals


- blood loses clotting ability or takes a long time to clot. Serious hemorrhages from slight wounds


- in chicks: anemia, easily injured, delayed clotting time, may bleed to death

sweet clover disease in cattle

coumarin (a fragrant compound of sweet clover) turns into dicoumarol due to fungi in mouldy clover. Dicoumarol is an anticoagulant and a competitive inhibitor of vitamin K epoxide reductase (an enzyme that recycles vit K). This causes depletion of vitamin K in the body.

Vitamin A sources

whole milk, fish oils, fresh forages (as B-carotene), synthetic

Other names for Vitamin A

retinol, retinal, retinoic acid

Which species cannot convert B-carotene to active vitamin A?

Cats, ferrets, and herptiles (reptiles and amphibians)

Which animals require a source of vitamin A?

ALL ANIMALS!

Functions of Vitamin A

- vision (light sensitivity), especially night vision


- maintenance and growth, reproduction


- formation of epithelial tissues and mucous membranes


- immune responses

Vitamin A deficiency in cattle and pigs

cattle: rough hair coat, swollen legs, retarded growth in calves, blindness, abortion



pigs: posterior paralysis, xerophthalmia, blindness, dry scaly skin, poor litters

Is loss of night vision and blindness due to vitamin A deficiency reversible?

Yes! Response to treatment in severe cases is often rapid, but it may be irreversible in chronic cases

Vitamin E sources

cereal grains, protein concentrates, oil seeds (peanut and soybean), fresh forages (preserved in silages but high losses in hay), synthetic.

Utilization of vitamin E is dependent on adequate...

selenium

When storing vitamin E as an oil, what do you need to add?

antioxidants, or else it goes bad

Vitamin E functions

- antioxidant, prevents free radicals breaking down cell membranes


- immune system


- formation of RBCs


- reproduction (maintenance of functional integrity of repro organs)


- gene expression


- platelet aggregation


- muscle growth


- prevention of oxidation of PUFA

Vitamin E deficiency

- muscular dystrophy


- weakness and collapse


- stiffness


- mulberry heart disease in pigs (white stripes)

What causes encephalomalacia and exudative diathesis in chicks?

vitamin E deficiency

Two forms of Vitamin D

ergocalciferol (D2) in sun dried forages



cholecalciferol (D3) in animal products

Converting Vitamin D to active form in the body

How vitamin D increases blood calcium

low blood calcium stimulates secretion of parathyroid hormone. This stimulates 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol release from the kidneys. This release increases intestinal absorption of calcium and more calcium can be reabsorbed by the kidneys and bones. Net result is increased blood calcium.

Signs of Vitamin D deficiency

uncommon



- reduced productivity


- decreased appetite


- poor weight gains


- poor reproductivity

Vitamin D deficiency effects in young animals, cattle, pigs, and poultry

young animals: rickets


young cattle: swollen knees and hocks, arched back


pigs: enlarged joints, broken bones, joint stiffness, paralysis


poultry: soft bones and beak, reduced egg production, poor eggshell quality

calcium distribution in the body

99% stored in skeleton (bones and teeth)


2:1 ratio with P as hydroxyapatite


In plasma as free ions, bound to proteins, or complexed with acids like citrate or phosphate

functions of calcium

- structural skeletal component


- muscle contraction


- nerve transmission


- blood coagulation


- milk production


- fetal growth

maintenance of blood calcium concentration

Low calcium levels stimulate parathyroid glands to release PTH. PTH goes into kidneys and bones. Kidney releases 1,25(OH)2D which increases small intestine absorption of calcium. Kidneys increase calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion. Bones increase calcium pumping to ECF and bone resorption. Net effect is increased ECF calcium.

Primary calcium deficiency vs. secondary calcium deficiency

primary: not enough calcium in the diet


secondary: enough calcium in the diet but absorption is inhibited by some other compound in the diet

Effects of primary deficiency

young animals: decreased growth rate, dental mal-development, gum deformities, poor incisor development



adults: inappatence, stiffness, tendency of bone fracture, can't stand, reduced milk flow, reduced fertility

effects of secondary deficiency

rickets. Animal's parathyroid gland becomes hyperactive to hang onto the little calcium it has. Leads to bone resorption, especially in the nose. Horses will get a big swollen nose. Pigs will get a twisted snout.

3 types of bone disorders

osteomalacia - softening of mature bone


osteodystrophy - secondary deficiency, swollen heads


osteoporosis - light, porous, fragile bone that easily fractures

Eclampsia in bitchesss

a secondary deficiency caused by excessive calcium ingestion during gestation. When dog gives birth its lazy parathyroid gland has atrophied and cannot meet the body's demand

Phosphorous is available through plants as

phytic acid

phosphorous distribution and function

-80% in skeleton as hydroxyapatite


- vital for life. needs to be in a 2:1 ratio with calcium


- skeletal component, phospholipid component, RNA and DNA component, enzyme component


- needed for ATP (obviously)

What is pica?

when animals eat dirt and fence posts because of phosphorous deficiency

Magnesium distribution in body

3rd highest concentration


- 50% in bone


- highest concentration in liver and skeletal muscle for soft tissue


- blood: 75% in RBC, 25% in serum

Magnesium function

skeletal development


required for oxidative phosphorylation of heart muscle


enzyme activation for multiple body functions

Grass tetany in cattle

due to magnesium deficiency


- when grass rapidly grows in the spring, Mg isn't taken up by the plant in correct ratios. The ratio of K to calcium and magnesium isn't correct and becomes a problem

Sodium roles

- helps maintain osmotic and pH balances


- principal solute for water reabsorption in kidneys


- needed for nerve transmission and muscle contraction


- activates carrier proteins for intestinal absorption

Potassium roles

- principal intracellular cation


- maintains osmotic balance


- needed for insulin release


- needed for nerve transmission


- maintains proper muscle function

Chlorine roles

- body's primary anion. balances sodium in extracellular fluids and potassium in intracellular fluids


- important for pH, electrolyte, and fluid balance

Ascites

"water belly" in chicks. due to sodium toxicity

Sulfur roles

- makes cartilage


- a part of feathers, gizzard, and muscle


- part of wool


- blood clotting


- protein, lipid, and CHO metabolism

Overall summary of mineral functions

Fluid balance (K, Na, and Cl)


Structure (Ca, P, Mg, Fl, Fe, S)


Hormones (I)


Metabolism


Cofactors (Cu, Zn)

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) source and role

source: citrus, vegetables



roles: oxidation-reduction reactions, collagen synthesis, transfer of iron from transferrin to ferritin, anti-oxidant

B vitamins

required for enzyme function


- synthesized by ruminants in the rumen


- synthesized by horses in the hindgut


- monogastrics food is supplemented with VitB

niacin is synthesized from?
What animal cannot do this reaction?

synthesized from tryptophan



cats can't do this, so they need to be supplemented

types of B vitamins

riboflavin, biotin, folic acid, choline, niacin, cyanocobalamin

thiamine sources and roles

cereal grains, brewer's yeast, egg yolk, liver, kidney, pork muscle



a coenzyme involved in oxidative dephospho rylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, and a-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA

animals with thiamine deficiency will stretch their head backwards. This is a sign of

opisthotonus

riboflavin (B2) sources and roles

rich sources (yeast, liver, milk, green leafy crops



chemical reactions involving H transport. oxidative phosphorylation

a tell-tale sign of riboflavin deficiency is

curled toe paralysis

Pyridoxine forms, sources, and roles

3 forms: pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine


sources: yeast, cereals, liver, milk


roles: amino acid absorption from intestine, RBC formation

pantothenic acid sources and roles

yeast, peas, molasses, liver, egg, milk, cereal



constituent of CoA

biotin sources and roles

liver, milk, yeast, oilseeds, vegetables



prosthetic group on enzymes involves in CO2 transfer

Folic Acid sources and roles

green leafy materials, cereals, oilseed meal



converted to tetrahydrofolic acid which is a coenzyme involved in methylation reactions. Involved in synthesis of RNA, DNA, and neurotransmitters

Vitamin B12 is a complex molecule containing

cobalt

vitamin B12 source and roles

liver is a rich source



coenzyme in several systems. In ruminants, involved in conversions of propionic acid to succinic acid

choline sources and roles

yeast, green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, cereals, can be synthesized in liver from methionine



structural integrity and signalling for cell membranes. coverts fat to lecithin in liver. utilizes fatty acids. transmits nerve pulses. donor of methyl groups in transmethylation reactions