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286 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are epithelial cells? |
cells of a primary tissue that covers the body surface, lines its internal cavities, and forms glands
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Epithelial cells come in how many forms?
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three shapes
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WHat are the bean shaped organs that produce urine and cleanse the blood?
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Kidney
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WHat are the tubular structures that connect the kidney to the urinary bladder?
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Ureters
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What is the bladder?
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Muscular reservoir where urine collects
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What is the urethra?
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Structure that rids the body of urine
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What is the endocrine gland that produces hormones and is made of two major regions?
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ADrenal glad
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WHat are the two regions of the adrenal glad?
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adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
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_____ is made from the adrenal cortex
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Aldosterone
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What is the fatty tissue that partially surrounds and supports the kidney?
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Adipose capsule
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WHat is the major vein exiting the renal hilus?
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Renal vein
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What does the renal vein connect too?
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inferior vena cava
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WHat is the indented area that forms the entry adn exit point for blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels?
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Renal hilus
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What is the major vein in the abdomen that returns blood to the heart?
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Inferior vena cava
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What are the secondary branches from the renal artery that carry blood to one of the lobes of the kidney?
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Lobar arteries
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What are the arteries that diverge from the renal artery?
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Segmental arteries
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What does it mean when something is retroperitoneal?
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It lies agains the dorsal body wall in the upper abdomen
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What is the renal artery?
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artery leading directly from the abdominal aorta into the kidney.
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WHat is the abdominal aorta?
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Portion of the large descending aorta that begins inferior to the muscular diaphragm and ends at the division into the common iliac arteries
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What are the three distinct sections of the kidney?
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Renal cortex, medulla, and pelvis
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What is the funnel shaped expanded tube that lies within the renal sinus and is continuous with the ureter?
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Renal pelvis
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What is the outer layer of the kidney that contains many nephrons?
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Renal cortex
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What is the cone shaped tissue of the medulla region that is formed of parralel bundels of collecting ducts that carries the urine into the reanl pelvis?
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Renal Pyramid
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What are extensions of the renal cortex that penetrate between and separate the reanl pyramids of the medullary region?
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renal columns
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What is the middle layer of the kidney that contains the renal pyramids?
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Renal medulla
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Nephrons in the cortex are ___ nephrons
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cortical
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Nephrons in the cortex and medulla are just ______ nephrons
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juxtamedullary
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What are nephrons?
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Structural and functional unit of kidney
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What is the nephron made of?
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glomerulus and renal tubule and associated blood vessels
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What is capillary bed lying between the afferent and efferent arterioles?
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Glomerulus
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What is the Bowman's capsule?
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Glomerulus
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WHat is the renal blood vessel emerhing from the glomerulus?
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efferent arteriole
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What does the efferent arteriole feed into?
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peritubular capillaries
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What are the renal blood vessels coming from the interlobular artery and carrying blood into the glomeulus?
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afferent arteriole
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What arteriole is important in autoregulatory mechanisms?
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afferent arteriole
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What is the vein that drains the peritubular cappilaries and vasa recta?
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Interlobular vein
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WHat does the interlobular vein connect to?
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arcuate vein
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What is the artery that bracnches from the arcuate artery?
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Interlobular artery
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What branches to form the afferent arterioles?
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Interlobular artery
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The _____ artery and vein give rise to the interlobular vein
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Arcuate
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The _____ artery and vein are the ones that lay at the medulla cortex junction
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arcuate
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WHat is the vein that draws from the arcuate vein and connects to the lobar vein?
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interlobar vein
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What is the continuation of the cortical collecting ducts that extend through the medulla?
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MEduallry collecting duct
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What is the glomerus?
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Capillary bed surrouned by the glomerular capsule
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What is the filtration unit of the nephron called? Comprised of glomerus and glomerular capsule
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Renal Corpuscle
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What is another name for the visceral layer?
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podocytes
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What is the layer of the glomerular capsule that lies fixed to the basement membrane of the glomerulus?
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Visceral layer
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What is the layer of the glomerular capsule that is not in direct contact with the glomerus?
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PArietal layer
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What is the region withing the glomerular capsule?
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Capsular space
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What is the reanl blood vessel that branches from the interlobular artery?
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afferent arteriole
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What is the renal blood vessel that distributes blood into the peritubular capillaries?
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Efferent Arteriole
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What is the filtration membrane?
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three layer barrier serving as a filter within the kidney
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What is the filtration membrane made of?
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Fenestrated endothelium, basement membrane, and filtration slits
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What are filtration slits formed by?
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Pedicels of the podocytes
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What are the fenestration?
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small holes or openings through an otherwise solid material
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What is the extracellular layer of material jointly formed by and lyring between the epithelial cells and underlying connective tissue cells?
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BAsement membrane
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WHat are the specialized cells that form a visceral layer of the glomerular capsule?
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Podocytes
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What are the pedicels?
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foot of the podocyte that participates in the formation of filtration membrane
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What are filtration slits?
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small spaces lying between individual pedicels of the filtration membrane
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What is PCT solubility?
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highly permeable to water but not solutes
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What is the PCT?
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proximal convoluted tubule
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What are the cells of the PCT called?
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brush border cells
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Why do brush border cells have their name?
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NUmerous microvilli, which project into the lumen of the tubule
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What are the epithelial cells of the PCT that have extensive microvilli on their luminal surfaces
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brush border cells
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WHat is the lumen?
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Space within a tubular structure in which fluid flows
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WHat is the interstitial space?
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Area between cells
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What is the interstitial space also called?
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interstitium
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What is the entire, combined portion of the renal cell's plasma membrane that lies in contact with the interstitial space?
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Basolateral membrane
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What is the plasma membrane of a cell that lies exposed to the contents of the tubular lumen?
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luminal membrane
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What is PCT solubility?
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highly permeable to water but not solutes
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What is the PCT?
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proximal convoluted tubule
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What are the cells of the PCT called?
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brush border cells
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Why do brush border cells have their name?
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NUmerous microvilli, which project into the lumen of the tubule
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What are the epithelial cells of the PCT that have extensive microvilli on their luminal surfaces
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brush border cells
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WHat is the lumen?
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Space within a tubular structure in which fluid flows
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WHat is the interstitial space?
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Area between cells
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What is the interstitial space also called?
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interstitium
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What is the entire, combined portion of the renal cell's plasma membrane that lies in contact with the interstitial space?
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Basolateral membrane
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What is the plasma membrane of a cell that lies exposed to the contents of the tubular lumen?
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luminal membrane
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What is the cell to cell connection in which cells membranes of adjacent cells form a very close binding?
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Tight junctions
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What is the protoplasmic extensions of the plasma membrane that increase surface are of absorptive membranes?
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microvilli
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What are the cells of the thin descending loop of the Henle called?
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simple squamous epithelial cells
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Brush border cells are _____ cells
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cuboidal
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Within the basolateral membrane, what is held?
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Mitochondrion
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Loops of the descending henle are soluble how?
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To water but not solutes
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What are the loops of the ascending loop of the Henle and DCT?
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Cuboidal cells
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What are the cells important for secretion and absorption and the main cell type found in the renal tubules?
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cuboidal cells
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What are the cells with nearly equal dimensions of height, breadth, and depth?
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Cuboidal cells
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What is the group of specialized monitoring structures in the walls of the terminal portion of the ascending loop of the Henle and the afferent arteriole where they come in clsoe contact near the glomerulus?
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Juxtaglomerular apparatus
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What are specialzed cells of JGA that appear to be sensitive to contenst and rate of flow filtrate?
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macula densa cells
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What is the modified smooth muscle cells of the afferent arteriole that play in autoregulation and blood pressure regulation by releasing enzyme renin called?
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Juxtaglomerular cells
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What type of cells are found in the late DCT and cortical collecting duct?
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cuboidal cells, principal and intercalated cells
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What are the pricipal cells sensitive to?
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hormones aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
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What are principal cells importance?
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Balance of sodium and potassium ions
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What are the intercalated cells job?
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acid-base regulation through secretion of hydrogen ions
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What are pricipal cells soluble to?
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water and solutes, regulated by hormones
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What is the continuation of the cortical collecting ducts that extend through the medulla?
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Medullary collecting duct
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WHere is the final concentration of urine?
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Medullary collecting duct
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WHat is the MCD made up of primarily?
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Pricipal cells
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What is the key freature of the MCD?
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hormonally regulated permeability to water and urea
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What is the pressure of fluid within a system or container?
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hydrostatic pressure
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WHat is the force of concentrated dissolved solutes that attract pure water when these solutes are separated by a selectively permeable membrnae?
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OSmostic pressure
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WHat is the capillary network that arises from the efferent arteriole and lies closely fixed to the renal tubules, particularly those in the renal cortex?
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peritubular capillaries
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The _____ within the glomerular capsule limits filtration
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pressure
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________ is an important varibale in the effective filtration of blood
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blood pressure
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glomerular filtration is a process of ____ driven by the hydrostatic pressure of the blood
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bulk flow
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The liquid and solutes that have passed through a filtration membrane and entered the renal tubule are the
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filtrate
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The fluid collecting in the capsular space is called the
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glomerular filtrate
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Glomerular filtrate components are
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glucose, aa (organic), urea, uric acid, creatinine (nitrogenous waste), NA, K, Cl (ions)
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Proteinuria is
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increased protein in urine
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Hematuria is
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presence of blood cells in urine
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The modified hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus that promotes the formation of glomerular filtrate is
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net filtration pressure
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The rate at which filtrate is formed by kidneys is the
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glomerular filtration rate
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The normal GFR is
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125 ml/min
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Fluctuations in the ______ affect GFR
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net filtration pressure
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______ mechanisms affect autoregulation in glomerular filtration
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Myogenic
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IN response to high osmolarity, macula densa cells release ______
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vasoconstrictor
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In response to low osmolarity, macula densa cells release less vasoconstrictor and signal JG to do what?
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release renin
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Renin transforms ______ into ____
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angiotensin to angiotensin II
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What does angiotensin II do?
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efferent arteriole decreases, blood flow decreases, GFR decreases, glomerular hydrostatic pressure decrease
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What is active transport in which energy liberated from ATP is transferred directly to the carrier molecule participating in the transport?
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primary active transport
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WHat uses the imbalances created by primary active transport to move additional substances across the membrane? ATP is the indirect energy source
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secondary active trasnport
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____ is the total concentration of all solute particles in a solution
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osmolarity
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the pathway that goes through luminal and basolateral pathways
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Transcellular pathway
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What is the absorptive pathway in the renal tubule that permits the movement of water and solutes through cell membranes and cytosol
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transcellular pathway
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The pathway that goes through junctions
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paracellular
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What is the absorptive athway in the reanl tubules that permits the diffusion of water and solutes bewteen cells rather than through cell membranes
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paracellular pathway
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WHat is the narrow space that lies between the tubular cells distal to the tight junctions
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lateral intercellular space
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________ increases causing water to diffuse out of the tubular lumen
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interstitial osmolarity
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_________ concentration causes additional sodium ions to be reabsorped through the luminal membrane
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Lowered intracellular
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REabsorption of many substances depends on the reabsoprtion of the
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sodium ion
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the cellular enzyme that binds to ATP and hydrolyzes ATP into ADP, liberating the energy within the high-energy phosphate bond
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ATPase
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The generic term for a transmembrane protein of the plasma membrane that transports substances across the membrane
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carrier molecule
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Diffusion is when higher concentration goes towards a lower one because of
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potassium ion pumps
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What is the passive transport process that uses a carrier molecule to enable the passage of a complex molecule across the membrane?
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facilitated diffusion
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Glucose carrier molecules go through ______ diffusion
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facilitated
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The luminal membrane contains which three transport mechanisms?
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sodium ion channels, Na?H counter transport and Na/glucose cotransport carrier molecules
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What is the secondary active trasnport in which two or more substances move in the same direction through the plasma membrane?
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co transport
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What is the secondary active transport in which two or omre substances move in the opposite direction through the plasma membrane?
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countertrasnport
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What is a condition in which glucose levels are above normal?
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hyperglycemia
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What is characterized by high blood sugar levels resulting in presence of sugar in urine?
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diabetes mellitus
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WHat is the limiting condition for the active transport of substances across the plasma membrnaes
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Transport maximum (Tm)
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In the ___, tight junctions are not as tight and water diffused through the junction, sometimes taking na, cl, and k
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PCT
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Osmolarity of filtrate and interstitial fluid equilibriates via what?
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reabsorption of water and solutes
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WHat is the movement of substances all moving in the same dirrection as a result of pressure?
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bulk flow
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In Henle, what is water permeability restricted by?
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tight junctions and glycoprotein covering of the luminal membrnae
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What is the point of the cell change in the diff loops of the Henle?
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membranes become permeable to H2O but not NaCl
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in the ____, luminal membrnaes have few short microvilli, contain many ion channels and secondary active trasnport carriers
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DCT
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Formation of the medullary osmotic gradient is called the ______ theory becuase of opposing flow of filtrate in two limbs of loop of Henle
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countercurrent multiplier
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Complex interplay of the ascending and descending limbs ofHenle forma dn maintain the _______ in the medulla
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interstitial osmolarity gradient
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______ gradient is essential for concentration of urine
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medullary
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The ascending limb transports _____ into the itnerstitium, thus making it more concentrated as fluid becomes more dilute
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NaCl
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____ provides the blood supply to the medullary cells without washing away the solute responsible for medullary osmotic gradient
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vasa recta
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role played by the opposing flow of blood within the vasa recta to provide nutrients to and remove waste from the medullary interstitium without washing away the solutes that maintain the medullary osmotic gradient
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countercurrent exchanger
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Bulk of reabsoprtion occurs in the ___ tubular segments
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early
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In the ___ tubular segments, membrane permeability can be changed for precise regulation of final reabsprtion and secretion
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late
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In the DCT and CCD, intercalated cells secrete _____ ion
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hydrogen
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In the DCT and CCD, principal cells are permeable to _____ and ____ only in the presence of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
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sodium ions, water
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Low levels of ______ result in little basolateral Na/K ATPase ion pump activity and few luminal Na & K ions
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aldosterone
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Principal cells are permeable to water only in presence of an
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ADH
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_______ leads to increase in ADH and aldosterone
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dehydration
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FInal concentration of urine occurs in the
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medullary collecting duct
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OF the glomerular filtrate, only ____ remains as urine
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5%
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What is thermoregulation?
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how animals maintain internal temp within a tolerable range
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What is osmoregulatioN?
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how animals regulate solute balance and gain and loss of H2O
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What is excretion?
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how an organims gets rid of nitrogen-containing waste, products of metabolism
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____ is sensitive to changes in internal temp
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metabolism
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_____ increases with temp to a certain point and then declines when temp is high enough to denature enzymes
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cell respiration
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WHat do polar bears do to regulate body temp?
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Hair acts as optical fiber that transmits UV radiation to the black skin, where energy is absorbed and converted to body heat
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Breeze of 15 km/hr will increase total heat loss by increasing convenction
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five fold
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Insects and fish use _____ muscles for heat, birds and mammals _______ for heat
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thoracic, bask in sun
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At 20C, human at rest has metabolic rate of ______ to _____ kcal per day
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1300, 1800
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American alligator has _____ metabolic rate
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60 kcal
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What are four thermoregulation adaptations?
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adjusting the rate of heat exchange between animal and surroundings, colling by evaporative heat loss, behavioral responses, changing rate of metabolic heat production
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Only _____ change rate of metabolic heat production
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endotherms
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How do invertebrates thermoregulate?
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control tem through behavior or physiological
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Salamanders average body temp ranges from what to what?
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7C to 25C
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____ can't control social mechanisms
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amphibians
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Bullfrog warms up through
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mucus
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Fish body temp range is
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within 1-2C of surrounding water temp
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Mammals and birds have rage of about
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36-38C, 40-42C
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Mammals and birds increase heat production by
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increasing contraction of muscles, increasing hormones that increase metabolic rate and production of heat
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What is nonshivering thermogenesis?
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hormonal triggering of heat production?
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Heat loss in water occurs _____ more rapidly
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50-100
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Marines have metabolic rate close to
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land mammals of same size
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Stress induced proteins are
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cells that respond to a marked stress
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What is the alternative physiological state in which metabolism decreases and the heart and respiratory system slow down?
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torpor
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What is long term torpor due to winter cold?
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hibernation
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What is slow metabolism and inactivity due to high temps and scarce water supplies?
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estivation
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____ and ____ triggered by seasonal changes in length of day
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hibernation and estivation
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________ show daily torpor
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bats and shrews
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An animal that uses internal mechanisms to control internal change is called a
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regulator
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An animal that allows its interbal condition to change in accordance with external changes is called a
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conformer
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What is negative feedback?
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control mechanism that reduces the stimulus
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an example of negative feedback is
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sweat
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What is positive feedback?
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amplifies the stimulus
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What is the gradual process by which an animal adjusts to changes in its external environment?
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acclimatization
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What is a poikilotherm?
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animal whose body temp varies with env.
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Poikilos means
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varied
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Stenohaline is an
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animal that cannot tolerate substantial changes in extenral osmolarity
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stenos means
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narrow
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euryhaline is an animal that
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can survive large fluctitations in extenrnal osmolaruty
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eurys means
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broad
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What is negative feedback?
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control mechanism that reduces the stimulus
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an example of negative feedback is
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sweat
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What is positive feedback?
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amplifies the stimulus
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What is the gradual process by which an animal adjusts to changes in its external environment?
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acclimatization
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What is a poikilotherm?
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animal whose body temp varies with env.
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Poikilos means
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varied
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Stenohaline is an
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animal that cannot tolerate substantial changes in extenral osmolarity
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stenos means
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narrow
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euryhaline is an animal that
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can survive large fluctitations in extenrnal osmolaruty
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eurys means
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broad
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desiccation is
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extreme hydration
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What is the dormant state when habitats dry up?
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anhydrobiosis
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What goes through anhydrobiosis?
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tardigrades
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HUmans die if ___% of water is gone
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12
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What is transport epithelial?
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one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions
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Osmoregulation and metabolic waste disposal rely on
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transport epithelia
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Animals need lots of H2O to process this form of nitrogen
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ammonia
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Product of metabolic cycle that combines ammonia and Co2, low toxicity, able to store in high concentrations
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urea
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non toxic form of nitrogen that does not readily dissolve in water
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uric acid
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Protonephridia is used by
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flatworms
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Metanephridia is used by
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annelids, earthworms
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What uses malphigian tubules?
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insects, terrestrial arthropods
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What use Kidneys?
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Mammals
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Marine means
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saltwater
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albatross get rid of salt water how?
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secretory tubule allows salt to be stores, goes out nostril
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all vertebrates except for ____ and ____ are osmoregulators
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chondrichthes, cartilage sharks
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Freshwater organisms are ____ organisms and marine are ______
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hypertonic, hypotonic
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Urea is ____ times less toxic than ammonia
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100,000
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What is the concentration of water given in?
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milliosmoles per liter
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WHat is the concentration of human blood?
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300 mosm/L
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What is the concentration of seawater?
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1000 mosm/L
|
|
|
Marine osmoregulators excrete extra salts through
|
gills
|
|
|
Turtles and tortoises can shift type of excretion from urea to uric acid when
|
temp goes up and H2o levels go down
|
|
|
What system of removal uses flame bulbs?
|
metanephridia
|
|
|
how long are the human kidneys?
|
12 cm
|
|
|
___% of blood is pumped into kidneys
|
25
|
|
|
_____L per day goes through kdineys
|
1500
|
|
|
___ muscles control urine exit, first is automatic, second is voluntary
|
sphincter
|
|
|
Normal concetration of urin is
|
600 mosm
|
|
|
Dehydration is caused by
|
release of ADH
|
|
|
when someone is dehydrated, they release ____ L/Day versys normal 1.5
|
.4
|
|
|
When dehydrated, concentration of urine is
|
1400 mosm
|
|
|
Overhydration is due to
|
low or absent ADH
|
|
|
OVerhydration leads to urine concentration of
|
100 mosm, 22.5 L/day
|
|
|
Collecting tubules join together to form the
|
pyramids, papillary ducts, major calyces, minor calyces, renal pelvis, ureters
|
|
|
Urinary bladder holds _____ ml
|
700-800
|
|
|
_____ have more urinary bladder volume than ____
|
males, females
|
|
|
at _____ml, reflex message is sent to clamp down on urethral sphincters and don't contract bladder
|
200-400
|
|
|
What is the micturition reflex?
|
moment you feel the bladder
|
|
|
The micturition reflex is part of the
|
sympathetic nervous systems
|
|
|
Low blood pressure results in ___ GFR that results in
|
low, anuria
|
|
|
anuria is when someone produces _____ml per day or urine
|
<50
|
|
|
What is renal calculi?
|
kidney stones, salts with calcium oxalate
|
|
|
Before surgery, one way to get rid of kidney stones is
|
lithotripsy, blasting stones
|
|
|
Kidney stones signify the urine has
|
crystalized
|
|
|
WHat is diabestes insipidus?
|
tasteless urine "no taste"=insipidus
|
|
|
Diabestes insipidus is caused by
|
damage to pituitary or hypothalamus
|
|
|
In Diabetes Insipidus, ______ L per day are produced
|
20-40
|
|
|
In diabestes insipidus, ______ id produced
|
no ADH
|
|
|
There are _______ for ADH on tubules in diabestes insipidus
|
damaged receptor glycoproteins
|
|
|
Diabestes insipidus can be
|
congenital
|
|
|
What is Bright's disease called?
|
glomerylonephritis
|
|
|
What is glomerylonephritis?
|
inflammation in the glomerulus, capillaries rupture, blood cells and large proteins enter the filtrate, permanent renal failure (death)
|
|
|
What is diabetes mellitus?
|
glucose in blood exceeds transport of PCT, overflow in urine
|
|
|
what is the diabetes that leads to sweet tasting urine?
|
diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
Over _____% of diabetes are in >20 years of renal failue
|
50
|
|
|
What is the symptome where you will see proteinuria?
|
nephrotic syndrome
|
|
|
What is polycystic kidney disease?
|
badly shapped collecting ducts form urine filled cysts
|
|
|
Polycystic kidney disease leads to
|
renal failre and death
|
|
|
What is blood in urine?
|
hematuria
|
|
|
What is painful urination?
|
dysuria
|
|
|
What is excess urine production?
|
polynuria
|
|
|
What is excess night time urination?
|
nocturia
|
|
|
What is lack of control of micturition reflex?
|
incontinence
|
|
|
What is artificial filtration of blood?
|
dialysis
|
|
|
We have ______ nephrons in the cortex
|
one million
|
|
|
Filtration slits are formed by
|
pedicels of the podocytes
|
|
|
angiotensin II constricts the
|
efferent arteriole when blood pressure becomes 80 mmhg
|
|
|
______ drives filtration
|
blood pressure
|
|
|
hyperglycemia acocompanies
|
diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
Interstitial osmolarity is _____ mosm greater than filtrate at any pointin tubule
|
200
|
|
|
Osmolarity of _______ is deeper than that of ______
|
medullary region, cortex region
|
|
|
Loop of henle forms medullary osmotic gradient by
|
countercurrent multiplier
|
