Urogenital System

Front 1

Osmoregulation

Back 1

regulating the specific gravity (amount of dissolved substances in the blood) - involves regulating water levels and ions

Front 2

Kidney

Back 2

bean-shaped organ located retroperitoneally (outside peritoneum)

Front 3

Renal artery

Back 3

brings blood into kidney

Front 4

Renal cortex

Back 4

outside of kidney

Front 5

Renal medulla

Back 5

inside of kidney

Front 6

Renal pelvis

Back 6

expanded section of ureter that receives urine from kidney

Front 7

Ureter

Back 7

carries urine to urinary bladder

Front 8

Urethra

Back 8

carries urine from bladder to outside of body (in males, it combines with the vas deferans of the reproductive tract to form the urogenital canal)

Front 9

Mammalian Urinary system

Back 9

-Kidney
-Renal artery
-Renal cortex
-Renal medulla
-Renal pelvis
-Ureter
-Urethra

Front 10

Nephron

Back 10

functional unit of kidney

Front 11

Parts of Nephron

Back 11

-Glomerulus
-Bowman's capsule
-Proximal convoluted tubule (cortex)
-Loop of Henle (medulla)
-Distal convoluted tubule (cortex)
-Collecting duct (cortex and medulla)

Front 12

Glomerulus

Back 12

bunch of capillaries - blood pressure forces liquid out of the blood and into Bowman's capsule - cells stay behind, liquid called glomerular filtrate

Front 13

Bowman's capsule

Back 13

expanded proximal end of the uriniferous tubule

Front 14

Proximal convoluted tubule (cortex)

Back 14

reabsorbs some water and NaCl

Front 15

Loop of Henle (medulla)

Back 15

reabsorb glucose, amino acids, vitamins, etc. via active transport and create a hyperosmotic interstitial fluid - see below. Unique to mammals and some birds.

Front 16

Distal convoluted tubule (cortex)

Back 16

reabsorb water, actively secrete hydrogen, potassium, drugs, salts. Nitrogenous waste left in urine

Front 17

Collecting duct (cortex and medulla)

Back 17

transport urine to renal pelvis

Front 18

180 l of water leaves blood and enters uriniferous tubule per day, there are only 5 liters of blood and 1-2 liters of urine are produced per day. What happens to the rest of the water?

Back 18

Proximal convoluted tubule - pumps Na+ ions into interstitial fluid, Cl- follows which draws out water - 2/3 of water in glomerular filtrate is thus immediately returned to blood, but that still leaves us losing 60l of water per day.

Front 19

Loop of Henle

Back 19

Proximally = descending loop, distally = ascending loop

Front 20

Descending loop

Back 20

permeable to water but not NaCl - water leaves

Front 21

Ascending loop

Back 21

permeable to NaCl but not water, Na+ ions actively pumped out drawing out Cl-

Front 22

Interstitial fluid now........

Back 22

..........hyperosmotic, that is; saltier than fluid in uriniferous tubule

Front 23

Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

Back 23

water permeable, so water leaves urine to fix osmotic imbalance

Front 24

Regulation - antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)

Back 24

when an animal needs to conserve water, the posterior pituitary releases ADH which increases the number of water channels in the plasma membranes so that more water is reabsorbed

Front 25

Nitrogenous waste Fact #1

Back 25

Amino acids have nitrogen in them

Front 26

Nitrogenous waste Fact #2

Back 26

When amino acids are catabolized for energy, ammonia (NH3) is produced. Ammonia is very toxic.

Front 27

Nitrogenous waste Fact #3

Back 27

Bony fishes and larval amphibians secrete ammonia from the gills

Front 28

Nitrogenous waste Fact #4

Back 28

Cartilaginous fishes, adult amphibians, and mammals convert ammonia to the much less toxic urea for excretion

Front 29

Nitrogenous waste Fact #5

Back 29

Reptiles, birds, and insects convert ammonia to uric acid which is not very soluble in water, so it precipitates out and can be eliminated with little loss of water

Front 30

Nitrogenous waste Fact #6

Back 30

mammals produce some uric acid which is converted by an enzyme called uricase into the more soluble allantoin. Humans, apes, and Dalmatians are the only mammals to lack this enzyme and must secrete uric acid. Gout is an accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints.

Front 31

Sex

Back 31

combination of sperm and egg

Front 32

Parthenogenesis

Back 32

(virgin birth) - common in inverts but not verts. In verts, usually parthenogenic species arise via hybridization producing an all female species. Females still require sperm to activate the eggs, but no recombination occurs (some teid lizards, some fishes)

Front 33

Hermaphroditism

Back 33

-Protogyny (first female)
-Protandry (first male)
-Sequential - both male and female at the same time

Front 34

Protogyny

Back 34

(first female) - in species where males defend territories, it is good to be large when male - Bluehead wrasse

Front 35

Protandry

Back 35

(first male) - even a small male can produce enough sperm to inseminate any female he come is contact with, but a large female can produce more eggs than a small one, so better to be female when large - groupers

Front 36

Sequential

Back 36

both male and female at the same time - common in inverts, not common in verts, except the hamlet fish (a type of grouper). Most have to fertilize others
III. Sex determination

Front 37

Sex determination for Mammals

Back 37

Males XY, females XX

Front 38

Sex determination for Birds

Back 38

Males XX, females XY

Front 39

Sex determination for Insects

Back 39

many different systems

Front 40

Sex determination for most fishes, amphibians, and reptiles

Back 40

environmental determinism - depends on temperature

Front 41

____________ is the default sex, something must be added to make the animal _____________

Back 41

female, male

Front 42

Estrus

Back 42

when females are sexually receptive - in most species this is the only time when sex will occur - estrous cycle

Front 43

Changes in ________________ and ________________ from the anterior pituitary cause egg cell development and hormone secretion in the ovaries

Back 43

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), lutenizing hormone (LH)

Front 44

Menstrual cycle

Back 44

similar to estrous cycle but found only in humans and apes - females shed inner lining of uterus and may engage in sex at any time during cycle

Front 45

Induced ovulation

Back 45

rabbits and cats - ovulate only after sex which makes them very fertile

Front 46

Male reproductive system

Back 46

Testes, Scrotum, Epididymis, Vas deferans, Prostate, Bulbourethral gland, Penis, Spermatogenesis

Front 47

Testes

Back 47

Seminiferous tubules, interstitial tissue

Front 48

Seminiferous tubules

Back 48

produces sperm

Front 49

interstitial tissue

Back 49

produces testosterone

Front 50

Scrotum

Back 50

outpocketing of coelom into which testes descend. Keeps the testes at 34°C vs. 37°C which is better for sperm production in humans

Front 51

Epididymis

Back 51

receive sperm and transfer to vas deferans

Front 52

Vas deferans

Back 52

(ejaculatory duct) - takes sperm out of body - in mammals it joins with the urethra at the prostate gland to form the urogenital canal

Front 53

Prostate

Back 53

contributes 60% of bulk of semen

Front 54

Bulbourethral gland

Back 54

secrete a fluid that lines urogenital canal and lubricates the tip of the penis

Front 55

Penis

Back 55

intromittent organ; Corpora cavernosa, Corpora spongiosum, Erection

Front 56

Corpora cavernosa

Back 56

two columns of erectile tissue along dorsal side

Front 57

Corpora spongiosum

Back 57

one column of erectile tissue along ventral side

Front 58

Erection

Back 58

blood flows into erectile tissue which compresses the veins so that blood cannot leave. Many animals with a bone (baculum) that aids

Front 59

Ejaculation

Back 59

release of approximately 5 ml of semen containing 300 million sperm (1 % of semen). Males with 20 million sperm/ml are considered sterile

Front 60

Spermatogenesis

Back 60

formation of sperm

Front 61

Spermatogenesis Fact #1

Back 61

Wall of seminiferous tubules with germinal cells (or spermatogonia) that split via meiosis

Front 62

Spermatogenesis Fact #2

Back 62

Germinal cells first split by mitosis, one daughter cell will split via meiosis (primary spermatocyte), but other remains diploid

Front 63

Spermatogenesis Fact #3

Back 63

Primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiosis to form 2 secondary spermatocytes

Front 64

Spermatogenesis Fact #4

Back 64

Secondary spermatocytes undergo second meiosis to form 4 spermatids

Front 65

Setoli cells

Back 65

secrete products required for spermatogenesis and help to convert spermatids to spermatozoa by engulfing the spermatids extra cytoplasm

Front 66

Sperm

Back 66

Made up of: Head, Body, and Tail

Front 67

Sperm Head

Back 67

compact with nucleus and acrosome (derived from golgi body) that contains enzymes that allow the sperm to penetrate the egg

Front 68

Sperm Body

Back 68

centriole - base of body of flagellum and mitochondria for energy

Front 69

Sperm Tail

Back 69

flagellum for movement

Front 70

Female reproductive system

Back 70

Clitoris, Labia majora, Ovaries with ovarian follicles, Fallopian tubes (oviducts), Uterus, Cervix, Vagina, Oogenesis,

Front 71

Clitoris

Back 71

from same tissue as penis - contains corpora cavernosa and is erectile

Front 72

Labia majora

Back 72

from same tissue as scrotum

Front 73

Ovaries with ovarian follicles

Back 73

each with egg cell and granulosa cells

Front 74

Fallopian tubes

Back 74

(oviducts) - transport ova to uterus

Front 75

Uterus

Back 75

in primates a single pear-shaped organ where growth of fetus occurs. In most animals there are two uterine horns - derived from oviduct

Front 76

Cervix

Back 76

projection of uterus into vagina

Front 77

Vagina

Back 77

receptacle for penis

Front 78

Oogenesis

Back 78

formation of eggs

Front 79

Oogenesis Step #1

Back 79

At birth - 2 million follicles each with an ovum arrested in prophase I of meiosis (primary oocyte)

Front 80

Oogenesis Step #2

Back 80

FSH stimulates a few follicles to develop, but only one reached full maturity - tertiary or Graafian follicle

Front 81

Oogenesis Step #3

Back 81

Follicle forms a thin walled blister on surface of ovary

Front 82

Oogenesis Step #4

Back 82

Primary oocyte completes first meiosis in follicle. Cleavage is uneven producing a small first polar body and a large secondary oocyte

Front 83

Oogenesis Step #5

Back 83

Secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but arrested at metaphase II when ejected from ovary when follicle bursts because of an increase in LH

Front 84

Oogenesis Step #6

Back 84

Oocyte enters abdominal cavity and is pulled into the fallopian tube by the action of ciliary cells

Front 85

Oogenesis Step #7

Back 85

If fertilized in Fallopian tube, meiosis II continues and forms second polar body and ovum which joins with sperm

Front 86

Oogenesis Step #8

Back 86

Fertilization is in upper 1/3 of fallopian tube - it takes 2-3 days for the zygote to implant in the endometrium of the uterus