Urban Planning 121 Final

Front 1

Policy

Back 1

derived from Greek term polis meaning 'city' or 'body of citizens', public policy becomes profession in 1960s for applying microecon./other social sciences to socioeconomic problems

Front 2

Planning

Back 2

laying things out, derived from Latin term planum, meaning 'level ground', has become more policy driven in recent decades

Front 3

Cities

Back 3

derived from Latin word civis meaning 'citizenship', implies contract binding all citizens together, cities have come to connote civilization

Front 4

The importance of trade and communication in creating and shaping cities*

Back 4

first cities established with the beginning of agriculture 10K years ago, which became the foundation of trade bc it requires surplus (production @ greater than subsistence levels), trade relies on communication links and minimizing transport costs- meeting in 1 spot aka the market, which becomes hub for religious, political activity too

Front 5

The first city: Uruk in Mesopotamia

Back 5

on banks of Tigris & Euphrates, rich soil to produce things like beer other grains, becomes trade center which then justifies permanent religious sites

Front 6

"The Grid" street pattern

Back 6

organizational building block of cities adopted by many early civilizations (eg. China for 1000s of yrs)

Front 7

Practical purposes of the grid*

Back 7

1. easy to lay out, administer

2. breezes could flow thru for natural ventilation

3. easy to defend if walled (fortification became necessary when resources abundant)

Front 8

Law of the Indies (urban design code)

Back 8

body of laws issued by Spanish Crown for the American and Philippine possessions of its empire, regulated social, political and economic life in these areas

Front 9

Hippodamus

Back 9

father of city planning, originated idea that city plan might formally embody and facilitate rational social order, spatial representation of a citizenry

Front 10

Greek urbanism

Back 10

polis= self governing, generally small city state with agora (market) and acropolis (citadel built on elevated ground)

eg. Athens

Front 11

Roman urbanism

Back 11

Rome= city of the empire, city as imperial machine which can control large spaces beyond itself thru trade, transport, communication with forum (market)

*spread Greek urban design concepts to rest of empire

Front 12

Medieval city

Back 12

small, well fortified (castles), states with limited access to other cities, dangerous to travel long distances, can't maintain trade networks

Front 13

Baron Haussmann

Back 13

engineered the Renovation of Paris in mid 1800s as response to 1848 revolution, proposed that they make a new city by paving whole swathes of land, making prominent boulevards, putting in new sanitation measures, beautifiying the city

Front 14

Commissions' Plan of 1811

Back 14

officially laid out the NYC grid based on commerce and movement of the city, not as pretty as Paris but functional for NY's commercial economy

Front 15

1792 Pierre L'Enfant's Plan for Washington DC

Back 15

building city from scratch in what's basically a swamp, in btwn nothern and southern parts of new union, not commercial city but something more like Euro capitals- city of ceremony w/ grid of large boulevards

Front 16

Mount Auburn Cemetery (Boston)

Back 16

built 1831 as "America's First Garden Cemetery" at the edge of the city, carefully landscaped, curvilinear paths, pastoral setting, intentionally not designed as a grid, became escape from horrendous conditions of industrial life, bringing countryside into city

Front 17

Frederick Law Olmsted*

Back 17

father of American landscape architecture, designed many urban parks like Prospect Park, Central Park

Front 18

Urban parks movement

Back 18

as refuge from noxious conditions of industrial city, comes out of yearning for agricultural wholesomeness [like Mt. Auburn but not a cemetery]

Front 19

Agricultural Revolution, Industrial Revolution and 19th century city

Back 19

greater productivity/tools/science create surplus of ppl bc automation of agricultural processes, brutal dispossession, immigration, need for workers in emerging urban economy, but creates sub-standard living conditions in overcrowded 19th cent. cities

Front 20

Urban slum conditions

Back 20

housing shortages, sub-standard housing

slums/tenements built hastily/cheaply

sanitation issues

criminality

extreme social inequality

Front 21

Charles Booth and the Booth Survey*

Back 21

systematic investigation and statistical analysis of living/working conditions in London (1886), street by street ethnographic observations putting to use emerging social science techniques to diagnose ills of the city --> becomes basis of urban planning/policy professions

Front 22

Social reform movements

Back 22

urban planning profession emerges from reform movements to alleviate deplorable conditions of 19th century industrial city

Front 23

The "Walking City"

Back 23

everyone living in a city was able to walk to their place of work, homes and workplaces concentrated in small areas

Front 24

Omnibus

Back 24

1820s, enclosed horse-drawn vehicle for passenger transport

Front 25

Commuter railroads

Back 25

intercity railraods w/ station in city center and in smaller commuter towns en route to other big cities (beads in the string pattern bc steam trains don't start/stop quickly)

*get to have industrial job, but live pastorally

Front 26

Horsecars

Back 26

horses pull cars attached to rails, carry more people w/i cities, but horses treated poorly

Front 27

Cable cars

Back 27

getting rid of horses, run on continuously moving cable system, limited in that they had to be used constantly, so used in densely populated areas

Front 28

Electric streetcars

Back 28

invented by Robert Sprigg, used electric traction motor- fast, efficient, carried lots of people so could charge modest fare, allow city to expand rapidly for the masses, streetcar suburbs emerge

Front 29

New York's Zoning Resolution of 1916*

Back 29

enacted first comprehensive zoning ordinance in US as response to complaints of the lost 'light and air' of taller buildings being built in Manhattan enabled by new steel frame construction, est. height controls and designated residential districts excluding 'incompatible uses'

- tall, slender business towers vs. 3-6 story residential buildings

- model for urban communities across US

Front 30

Barclay-Vesey Building

Back 30

1920s building, housed the NY Telephone Company, first art deco skyscraper, one of the first buildings designed under the 1916 zoning resolution

Front 31

example of zoning and exclusion

Back 31

SF bans public laundries in most areas, not-so-subtle attempt to zone Chinese immigrant population out, invalidated by Supreme Court

Front 32

Context of Postmodernism

Back 32

-multiple mass media outlets, improved communication tech

-perceived failures of modernist project

-increased questioning of role of state, retreat of the state

-punk rock, diversity of tastes/cultures

-increased attention to place rather than space

Front 33

Robert Beauregard's description of planning as a modernist project (4 elements)

Back 33

Planners sought to:

1. Bring reason, democracy to bear on capitalist urbanization

2. Guide state decision making with technical rather than political rationality

3. Produce a coordinated, functional urban form organized around collective goals

4. Use economic growth to create middle-class society

Front 34

Ideology of modernism

Back 34

take advantage of technology available at the time (concrete, mteal, steel, glass) to make affordable housing for the masses, use science/reason to make ppl's lives better

*creation of just, fair society

Front 35

Postmodern cultural critique (according to Beauregard)

Back 35

a. historical allusions, uniqueness of localities

b. abandonment of critical distance for ironic commentary

c. embracing multiple discourses, rejection of totalizing discourse

d. skepticism towards master narratives, general social theories

e. disinterest in performativity of knowledge

f. rejection of notions of progress, enlightenment

g. tendency towards political acquiescence

Front 36

Streetcar suburbs

Back 36

advent of electric streetcars meant that residences could be built farther away from city centers, 'streetcar suburbs' emerge outside major cities

Front 37

Pacific Electric in LA

Back 37

AKA the red car system, privately owned mass transit system mostly of electric streetcars organized around the city center and extended out to the rapidly expanding streetcar suburbs of the time (Orange county, etc.)

Front 38

Garden City movement

Back 38

came out of Britain in early 1900s then spread globally, intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of residences, industry and agriculture

Front 39

Sir Ebenezer Howard

Back 39

began the garden city movement in Britain in early 1900s, vision of a utopian city in which ppl live harmoniously w/ nature

Front 40

Garden suburbs

Back 40

communities that came out of the garden city movement eg. Letchworth, Forest Hill

Front 41

Letchworth

Back 41

Garden city founded in Hertfordshire, England

Front 42

Welwyn

Back 42

garden city founded also in Hertfordshire

Front 43

Clarence Perry and the Neighborhood Unit

Back 43

framework for designing residential areas in industrializing cities (with the rise of the car) to keep families safe and promote a community-centric lifestyle by keeping traffic on outskirts, building schools underground, etc.

Front 44

Radburn, NJ and it's traffic plan

Back 44

explicitly designed to separate traffic by mode- pedestrian path system that didn't cross major automobile roads, introduced largely residential "superblock" and earliest cul-de-sacs in US

Front 45

Greenbelt (MD), Greendale (WI), Greenhills (OH)

Back 45

three "green" towns planned in 1935 under the US Resettlement Administration as ideal self-sufficient cooperative communities that could also help ease housing shortage and create jobs via its construction

Front 46

New Towns movement

Back 46

evolution of Garden City movement- decongest larger industrialized cities, rehousing people in fully planned, freshly built, self-sufficient communities

Front 47

Levittown(s)*

Back 47

post-WWII suburban expansion (no housing construction during Depression) thru massive federal subsidies, but houses still privately owned - affordable, quickly built for expanding middle class

Front 48

The Great Migration

Back 48

migration of African Americans from the American South, created greater need for housing supply but also use of racist tactics like redlining

Front 49

Filtering of the housing stock

Back 49

as housing depreciates/decays over time, what was once a new building becomes outdated and, unless renovated, less desirable, passes down to lower income strata

opposite of gentrification

Front 50

Housing Act of 1949*

Back 50

expansion of federal role in mortgage issuance, construction of public housing under Truman

Front 51

Elements of Housing Act of 1949

Back 51

1. provide fed financing for slum clearance programs associated w/ urban renewal projects

2. increase authorization for fed housing admin. mortgage insurance, stimulate construction industry

3. extend fed $ to build 800K+ public housing units

4. fund research into housing techniques

5. permit FHA to provide financing to rural homeowners

Front 52

redlining*

Back 52

used by homeowners loan corporation, grade areas of the city for mortgage insurance (1st-4th grade), ethnic minorities esp. AAs had difficulty getting mortgage insurance, created system in which banks stay away from providing financing to areas w/ minorities bc considered risky investment - minorities can't build up capital assets

Front 53

Paul Davidoff & advocacy planning

Back 53

thought urban planners can't be apolitical, should take particular role as public defenders to see that the most disadvantaged get their needs addressed before powerful elites - postmodernist bottom-up planning

Front 54

Gentrification*

Back 54

opposite of filtering, term first used by British sociologist Ruth Glass to describe the recognition of value of old buildings, placing value on the culture of cities and their diversity which drives up property values, can price low income people out

eg. Islington, London

eg. Ghirardelli Square, SF

Eg. Meatpacking district, NY

Front 55

ABCSs of gentrification

Back 55

art galleries

boutiques

cafes

*attraction to edge, diversity, activity, younger middle class of ppl w/ cultural capital usually w/o kids so able to consume

Front 56

Robert Moses

Back 56

classic modernist, 1 of most powerful men in NY in 20th century as parks commissioner (in charge of toll revenue), big bold plans, large concrete structures - urban renewal

Lincoln Center, Shea Stadium, Central Park Zoo

Front 57

Jane Jacobs

Back 57

argued urban renewal didn't serve needs of most city dwellers, organized grassroots efforts to protect existing neighborhoods from large modernist projects esp. from slum clearance

Front 58

x Battle of Washington Square Park (1958) x

Back 58

proposal to put an expressway thru park, but rising minority chorus fought against it with Jacobs at the helm

Front 59

x Lower Manhattan Expressway proposal x

Back 59

proposal to put 10 lane elevated highway across Manhattan to make it more automobile friendly, Jacob wins, spurs whole slew of highway revolts

Front 60

Demolition of Penn Station (1963) & birth of the historical preservation movement

Back 60

beautiful station torn down by Penn. railroad that becomes Madison Square Garden, public has interest in preserving certain private properties bc they're historically significant

Front 61

Moving to Opportunity (MTO) Program

Back 61

Can new neighborhoods change life outcomes - trying to help low income families w/ kids to move from public/assisted housing in high-poverty inner city neighborhoods to middle class ones

Front 62

2 forms of public housing assistance provided by federal gov't

Back 62

1. Housing vouchers aka rent $$

2. Public housing projects aka physical structures the gov't builds eg. Pruitt Igoe

Front 63

theory of concentrated poverty

Back 63

detrimental when a lot of poverty in one place, all the ppl one knows are poor, little opportunity for social mobility when you cluster low income houses in 1 place

Front 64

Hope VI*

Back 64

1.5M housing units built in structures that look more like single family housing and in more suburban areas - not much better outcomes

Front 65

lease up counseling

Back 65

in addition to receiving housing voucher, movers are aided in finding higher income neighborhoods to settle in (finding landlords that actually allow ppl from low income neighborhoods to use vouchers)

Front 66

Basic methods of financing transportation infrastructure*

Back 66

fuel taxes

sales taxes

property taxes

tolls

Front 67

Automobile as a consumer good (as opposed to fare for service model)*

Back 67

when you buy a car, you're responsible for its upkeep (sunk cost), can't only pay for it when you use it

Front 68

Ford Model T (1908-1927)

Back 68

first dependable, affordable car produced for the masses

Front 69

5-cent fare

Back 69

political stance on need to regulate streetcar companies so they couldn't take advantage of ppl's need to get places (i.e. preventing them from charging high fares to cover labor/infrastructure costs) - become unable to compete w/ automobiles being subsidized by publicly funded roads

Front 70

Good Roads movement

Back 70

need for good roads precedes automobile, bicycle craze of late 1880s actually incites public financing of roads

Front 71

Role of early bicycling

Back 71

form of quick mobility without being tied to trolley schedules, could get to places where trains/trolleys couldn't

Front 72

Office of Road Inquiry (1893)

Back 72

earliest predecessor of Fed. Highway Administration, pressure from good roads movement creates need for regulation

Front 73

Bronx River Parkway (1907)

Back 73

one of first freeways, mixed use for autos/bikes/horses, not a street but a designated thoroughfare, first highway to use median strip to separate opposing traffic

Front 74

Long Island Motor Parkway (1908)

Back 74

privately built exclusively for cars, opened up suburbanization in Long Island, rising land values create profit for real estate developers who have interest in paving even more land

Front 75

Lincoln Highway (1912) $

Back 75

built for cross-country pleasure trips for wealthier ppl who could afford cars and to take time off, starts idea of nat'l system of roads

Front 76

Federal Aid Road Act of 1916

Back 76

federal gov't gets involved for first time in building roads

Front 77

Phipps Act of 1921

Back 77

recognition of need for a system of roads - first coherent plan for nation's future roads, specifically addressed both primary (interstate) and secondary (intercounty) highways

Front 78

Federal Aid Highway Act of 1944

Back 78

mandated post-war construction of highways, bridges - created nat'l system of highways

Front 79

Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956

Back 79

sorts out highway trust fund, federal gas taxes make up 90% of revenues to build highways

*Eisenhower advocates for interstate highways as important for nat'l defense

Front 80

Futurama Exhibit at the 1939 NY World's Fair

Back 80

presented possible model for world 20 yrs in future with automated highways, massive suburbs sponsored by GM

Front 81

Impact of private automobility on urban form*

Back 81

*creates low density housing

*creates need for traffic separation, enhanced flows (dedicated roads just for cars)

*increased separation of land use= zoning

Front 82

Frank Lloyd Wright & Broadacre City

Back 82

utopian suburban development concept by which every family would receive 1 acre of federal land which would become the building block for communities, most transportation by car

Front 83

San Francisco Freeway Revolt (1959)

Back 83

Board of Supervisors stops construction of double decker Embarcadero Freeway along waterfront (displaced people, sliced neighborhoods in half)

Front 84

High Speed Rail as a concept: "A Fast Highway for Trains"

Back 84

dedicated right of way= theoretical speeds of 200-300km/hour, specialized tracks, little curvature, no major gradient changes, intended for business travelers

-supposed to be a green transport solution but speed=energy

Front 85

The nature of long-distance travel vs. short-distance travel*

Back 85

hi-speed rail focuses on regional markets, but in reality intercity travel is much lighter than intracity and shorter distance travel (assumption that there's more travel btwn SF & LA than there really is)

Front 86

Megaproject planning/The 4 Megaproject Eras according to Alan Altshuler*

Back 86

I. Pre-Mega Project Era [1880s-1920s]

II. Great Mega Project Era [1930s-1960s]

III. Era of Transition [1960s-1970s]

IV. Do No Harm Era [1970s-today]

Front 87

Pre-Mega Project Era [1880s-1920s]

Back 87

some public involvement in transport construction, but small scale, primarily using private capital, always looking for returns eg. streetcars

Front 88

Great Megaproject Era [1930s-1960s]

Back 88

heavy gov't involvement in infrastructure (dams, roads, airports), high modernism

Front 89

Era of Transition [1960s-1970s]

Back 89

Jane Jacobs era, rise of postmodern criticism of massive public infrastructure projects, rise in environmental sensitivity, mega projects ground to a halt

Front 90

Do No Harm Era [1970s-today]

Back 90

projects still get pushed forward but have to deal w/ extensive review, fierce opposition by political lobbies - which often gets bought off (demands met, causes project budgets to skyrocket)

Front 91

"Livable" cities

Back 91

transit friendly, dense, walkable corridors - creating network economy by linking up urban centers

Front 92

Great Fire of London (1666)

Back 92

crowded medieval city made mostly of wood (tinder box), rebuilt in same pattern/grid it was before to preserve property boundaries bc wealthy want to keep their land

Front 93

Great Chicago Fire (1871)*

Back 93

devastating- building codes emerge to make building more fire proof

**origin of skyscrapers- land wiped clean but still valuable, experiments with steel frames, glass, metals, ceramics with which they could build higher

Front 94

Johnstown Flood (1889)

Back 94

shoddily built dam quickly reconstructed broke bc not built to proper standards, devastates community, disproportionately affects poor in floodplain (great social shakeup)

Front 95

Great Mississippi Flood (1927)

Back 95

New Orlean's response= poorly organized, never becomes major American city again

Front 96

Fireflows

Back 96

constraint on building- have to have sufficient water tanks, pressure to build in certain area esp. if at high risk of wildfire

Front 97

"Green" urban economy*

Back 97

[Richard Florida's thesis] cities compete for the skilled creative classes by being more green and offering a higher quality of life (Portland, SF, etc.), these cities prepared for the future and are innovating technologically

Front 98

Neoliberal economics and globalization (1970s, 80s)

Back 98

dramatic improvements in communication/transportation tech, free trade pacts, countries becomes more open and cities act as hubs for global trade/commercial control centers - even more important

Front 99

Postmodern cities of consumption

Back 99

de-industrialized cities are objects of cultural consumption themselves, gentrifiers pay for the privilege to use these spaces - wealthier ppl become attracted to cities' diversity and culture

Front 100

Edge city

Back 100

concentration of biz, shopping, entertainment outside traditional downtown (or CBD) in what had previously been a residential or rural area - reinvention of downtown closer to suburban commuters

Eg. Westwood

Front 101

Urban enterprise zones

Back 101

begin under Thatcher, who identified areas in which they could strip down economic regulation and allow entrepreneurial activity and private enterprise to flourish (low/no taxes, construction restrictions)

Front 102

London docklands

Back 102

became obsolete when huge container ships come on line in 1980s bc restricted spatially, but well located near city center so reconstructed as office space - proved extremely necessary bc London is world's financial center

Front 103

Richard Meier's pioneering idea: A Communications Theory of Urban Growth

Back 103

?

Front 104

Melvin Webber's "Non-place urban realm"

Back 104

idea of community w/o propinquity- cities that were clusters of settlements w/ the urban realm of occupants being determined by social and economic links/networks rather than geographical ones

Front 105

Transistor as the key technology of modern electronics*

Back 105

key active component in basically all modern technologies, basis of info processing

Front 106

ARPAnet (1969)

Back 106

network that became basis for internet, developed first using gov't funding to connect 4 university computers, w/ initial purpose of communicating with, sharing resources among them by sending small units of data called packets

Front 107

Manuel Castells

Back 107

internet has its own geography, made of networks with nodes that process info that is generated and managed from certain places, redefines distance but doesn't cancel geography

Front 108

Saskia Sassen

Back 108

chronicles how Tokyo, NY, London became command centers for global economy by forming strategic transnational networks - globalization as created, facilitated, enacted from specific locales that control disproportionate amt. of global biz

Front 109

Richard Florida

Back 109

attracting the creative class of informational workers important to area's economic health

Front 110

Digital divide

Back 110

inequality in the extent of connection in informational era, some ppl really connected to info economy which they can convert to wealth and others lack the skills/capital/technology to connect themselves (info about market prices, job opps., etc.)

Front 111

DARPA Grand Challenges and autonomous vehicles

Back 111

military had already been financing increased automation of fleets, then defense dept. realizes isn't getting enough innovation for its $$ so opens up competition - offers $1M for first autonomous vehicle that can go from LA to Vegas

Front 112

Smart cities and big data

Back 112

cities positioned well for future challenges and growth, collecting data en masse to inform urban policy

Front 113

the pristine myth

Back 113

idea that native people of the Americas has minimal impact on the environment

Front 114

National Parks movement

Back 114

impulse to preserve nature and (pre)historic structures during Westward expansion/Manifest Destiny in mid 1800s, often joined with pragmatic desire to promote eco-tourism

Front 115

John Muir's preservationism

Back 115

valued nature for its spiritual and transcendental qualities, father of national parks system

Front 116

Theodore Roosevelt's conservationsim

Back 116

means of managing the nation's natural resources for long-term sustainable commercial use- manipulation, exploitation of natural resources

Front 117

Bureau of Land Reclamation

Back 117

‘modern’ ideology of maximum public use, often through extensive civil engineering works like dams, power plants, canals used for growing crops, supplying communities, etc.

Front 118

Aldo Leopold, ecological thought, and A Sand County Almanac (1949)

Back 118

modern environmental ethics and wilderness conservation- emphasized biodiversity and ecology, wildlife management

morality and preservation of nature

Front 119

Rachel Carson and Silent Spring (1962)

Back 119

detrimental effects on the environment (esp. on birds) of the indiscriminate use of pesticides by chemical industry which led to nationwide ban on DDT

Front 120

1969 Santa Barbara Oil Spill, birth of the modern environmental movement*

Back 120

3M gallons of crude into ocean, led to backlash of citizen-led environmental advocacy groups to push for new regulations on oil industry, restrictions on offshore drilling

Front 121

Ian McHarg and Design with Nature

Back 121

promoted landscape architecture as instrument of environmentalism

Front 122

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (1969)

Back 122

requires environmental impact reports that contain statements about environmental effects of proposed federal agency actions

Front 123

CA Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) (1970)

Back 123

requires state, local agencies within California to follow protocol of analysis and public disclosure of environmental impacts of proposed projects and adopt all feasible measures to mitigate them

Front 124

Endangerd Species Act (1973)

Back 124

mandates conservation of threatened/endangered species throughout all or a significant portion of their range,and conservation of ecosystems on which they depend

Front 125

The UN Brundtland Commission and 'Sustainable Development'*

Back 125

defined sustainable development as meeting needs of the present without compromising ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Front 126

precautionary principle

Back 126

when an activity raises threats to human or environmental health, precautionary measures should be taken even if cause/effect relationships aren't firmly established, burden of proof lies on the proponent of the activity rather than on the public

Front 127

adaptation and resilience

Back 127

letting disaster occur as it may and adapting to the consequences, stregthening policies based on the results

Front 128

environmental justice

Back 128

fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, equitable participation in environmental decision making

Front 129

Evolving political context of megaprojects*

Back 129

from primacy of planners to political struggles btwn interest groups - more voices heard (postmodern), smaller/more incremental infrastructure projects proving beneficial