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220 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The major structure of the cell membrane is the ________.
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bilipid layer of phospholipids
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What are the two sides of the cell membrane called?
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extracellular and intracellular
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What holds the cellular membrane up on the inside, structurally, and is connected to the cell's components there directly?
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Microfilaments of cytoskeleton
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What holds the cellular membrane up on the outside, structurally, and is connected to the cell's components there, directly?
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The extracellular matrix
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What are transmembrane proteins?
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The major structures in the cell membrane that go from one side to the other, functioning as "loading docks" for the cell.
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Cholesterol can be found in the cell membrane and also has both ______ and ______ domains, making it _______.
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hydrophillic, hydrophobic, amphiphatic
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Membranes ultimately have to separate two different regions of ______ creating two environments: inside and out.
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water
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The key property of water that might influence the structure of membranes is that it has _____.
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charge
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In water, hydrophillic substances will end up _________.
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in solution
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In water, hydrophobic substances will _________.
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clump together, separate out
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______ substances can reorganize water.
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Hydrophobic
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The structure of the phospholipid bilayer (and its ability to reorganize water) is due to lipid molecules having hydro____ heads and hydro____tails.
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PHILLIC, PHOBIC
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What is the most common lipid in membranes?
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phosphotidylcholine
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Unsaturated fats ___ a double bond.
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HAVE
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Saturated fats ___ a double bond.
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LACK
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In a membrane, what will fill in the area between unsaturated tails?
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cholesterol
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How does cholesterol affect the membrane's fluidity?
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more cholesterol=less fluidity and viscosity because the hydrocarbon tails are more tightly and regularly packed.
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Membrane fluidity affects positioning of _______ in the membrane.
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proteins
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How do lipid rafts, or sphingolipids, sequester proteins and limit movement in localized domains?
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They have long, saturated, hydrophobic tails that can hold adjacent molecules together transiently in microdomains.
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What are the four classes of membrane proteins?
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Transporter, Anchor, Receptor, Enzyme
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What do anchor proteins link?
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intracellular actin filaments and extracellular matrix proteins
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What do receptors do?
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Gather information about cell's environment and transport it to the interior
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What do transporters do?
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Transport nutrients, metabolites and ions across bilayer
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How are proteins attached to the membrane?
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Proteins synthesized in the ER meant for the membrane are made and stay within the membrane.
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Which side of a membrane protein synthesized in the ER will end up on the extracellular side of the membrane?
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The inside
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Where are integral membrane proteins located?
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IN the membrane
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Integral membrane proteins can either be in a _____ or ______ domain.
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Transmembrane, membrane-associated
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Where is a peripheral membrane protein located?
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Not directly in the membrane, but has links to it
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All integral membrane proteins are ______.
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Amphiphatic
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Various tertiary protein structures are found forming different shapes within the membrane. What is the most common structure?
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Alpha-helix
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Where and during what process do glycosylations (attaching of sugar to membrane-bound protein) always occur?
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Asparagine side-chain (Asn AA) locations during protein incorporation into the ER
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The Carbohydrate layer is a cell's protective layer of extracellular-bound sugars. Name three things it does.
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1) plays role in cell-cell interactions
2) absorbs water to make cell less sticky 3) protects cell from physical and chemical stresses |
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Asymmetric localization of protein receptors can enable _____________.
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site-specific communication for cell and tissue function
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An example of protein receptor asymmetries: PIN transmembrane polar transporters direct the flow of _____ hormone and thus the growth of what?
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Auxin; plants
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The membrane is S______ P_____!!!!!
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selectively permeable
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Cells need to import nutrients (sugars and amino acids) and export waste products, as well as regulate the intracellular concentrations of many ions. Small hydrophobic molecules and small uncharged polar molecules can exit the lipid bilayer through what process?
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free diffusion (osmosis)
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Cells need to import nutrients (sugars and amino acids) and export waste products, as well as regulate the intracellular concentrations of many ions. Larger uncharged polar molecules and ions are regulated/kept within the membrane through what two processes?
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Facilitated diffusion and active transport
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Provided a non-selective membrane, solutes and water will diffuse across membrane until?
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the system is equalized.
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If membrane is selectively permeable, then water moves from low solute concentration to higher solute concentration, in a process called
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osmosis
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What force drives osmosis?
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Osmotic pressure
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Cells in our body are surrounded by fluids rich in solutes (Na+ and Cl-) and thus maintained at an...
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osmotic balance.
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What is tonicity?
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the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
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What is an isotonic solution?
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Solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane
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What is a hypertonic solution?
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Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water
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What is a hypotonic solution?
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Solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water
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Aquaporin
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water channel
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What functions to make membranes more permeable to water transport, which would occur based on osmolarity of a cell?
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Aquaporins
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In what kingdoms to aquaporins function?
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All
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Aquaporins have specialized roles in a variety of tissues for ____ movement of _____.
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fast; water
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What are the two classes of membrane transport proteins?
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Carrier protein (very specific) and channel protein (discriminates based on size and charge)
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What determines direction of membrane transport?
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Concentration
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The net effect of concentration gradient and charge differences creates the __________ that controls passive transport.
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electrochemical gradient
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Active transport moves solutes against their electrochemical gradient by what three methods?
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Coupled transporter, ATP pump, light-driven pump
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Plants commonly use the gradient of H+ ions generated by proton pumps to drive _________ of nutrients into the cell.
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active transport
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By evolving different ____ and ______, ion channels are extremely specific for individual ions.
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pore sizes and inner charges
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Ion channels are "gated"- they have both a closed and open state. When open, the selectivity and natural electrochem. gradient of that specific ion with rush through reaching rates how much faster than any carrier protein?
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1000x
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Voltage changes get passed on down a membrane of a cell by triggering neighboring ion channels to open. What are three examples?
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Nerve impulses are passed down axons; venus flytrap; hearing
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Ion channels can be gated in what four ways?
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voltage-gated, ligand-gated (extracellular ligand), ligand gated (intracellular ligand), mechanically gated
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Go study the Glucose-NA symport right now.
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Did you?
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Go study the NA/K ATPase pump.
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Excellent.
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Describe the appearance and function of intermediate filaments. What are they made of?
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Rope-like, mechanical strength; IF proteins
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Describe the appearance and function of microtubules. What are they made of?
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Long, rigid cylinders; movement, transport, division; tubulin
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Describe the appearance and function of actin filaments. What are they made of?
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flexible microfilaments; movement, signaling; actin polymers
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MT: Alpha and beta subunits of tubulin come together to form heterodimer, establishing a _-___ structure which has _____.
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13-ring; polarity
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What is the cavity inside the 13-ring structure of a MT called?
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lumen
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Additions and subtractions occur on which end of MT?
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Plus end (polymerization end)
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What is the organizing center of MT?
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Centrosome
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____ occurs on alpha- end, attaching MT to centrosome, where they grow outward from the centrosome
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Nucleation
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MT: Dynamic instability (shrinking) is controlled by...?
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the hydrolysis of GTP
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MT randomly explore the cell until they find something to bind to. What do they bind to?
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Capping proteins. This helps facilitate key cellular structure.
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Directed MT can provide transport highways for what?
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vesicles full of proteins and organelles
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Motor proteins have a ____ and ____.
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motor head and tail
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In a motor protein, the motor head binds to MT, while the tail binds to ____
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the vesicle.
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Certain motor proteins can only move in + or - direction. What is the name for those that can only move in the plus?
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Kinesins
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Certain motor proteins can only move in + or - direction. What is the name for those that can only move in the minus?
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Dyneins
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What's it all about?
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Conformational changes of proteins.
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What drives motor protein movement?
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ATP hydrolysis
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Cilia contain stable MT that move Dynein motor protein. What type of array are they arranged in?
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9+2
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Two different molecules of Dynein link one MT array (bound to its tail) with another array (bound to its motor head). Because Dynein is bound, its movement causes the entire ___ to move.
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cilium
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What is the cytoskeleton's major substrate, and what can it do?
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MT; move itself, move cargo
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How are IF formed and why are they the most durable of the three filaments?
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monomer->dimer->tetramer->two tetramers packed end to end -> eight tetramers twisted into ropelike filament
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What principally prevents excessive cell stretching due to mechanical stress?
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IFs
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IFs network through cell is often anchored to plasma membrane through common junction with...?
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IFs in adjacent cell
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Are MT dynamic?
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Yes
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MT's - end is bound to _____ ____ in centrosome?
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gamma tubulin
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In MT, polymerization occurs because of
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GTP hydrolysis
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In MT, depolymerization occurs because of
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GDP
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Actin filaments consist of ___ protofilaments coiled together. Different actin arrangements can create...
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two; different shapes.
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Actin filament construction: signal, such as nutrient source, causes what?
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Disassembly of filaments, rapid diffusion of subunits, then filaments reassemble at new site.
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Actin monomers are enzymes that ______ ____.
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hydrolyze ATP
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Actin polymerization and depolymerization requires the exchange of
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ATP and ADP
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What are some examples of proteins that comprise the actin cytoskeleton?
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Nucleating, monomer-sequestering, bundling, motor, side-binding, capping, cross-linking, severing
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Specialized binding proteins ultimately influence...
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actin microfilament organization.
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ARP2/3 binds to the minus end of an actin filament, nucleating the filament. Growth then occurs in what direction?
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Specific plus end direction
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Modification of filament elongation by binding to free subunits: how do growth and loss occur?
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profilin results in actin filament growth, while thymocin results in decrease
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Different bundling proteins can package filaments differently, for instance...
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fimbrin and others generate parallel arrays in Microvill.
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Filamin dimers (selected as potential target for Cancer therapy) crosslink actin microfilaments into a 3D network that exhibits...?
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gel-like characteristics
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What does gelsolin do?
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Functions to sever filaments, helping to reorganize the cytoskeleton quickly
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What activates gelsolin?
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Ca++
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Is actin a monomer or heterodimer?
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Monomer
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What tells the cytoskeletal components to take on different configurations?
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Rho GTPases, byatch.
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Regulates all peripheral proteins?
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Rho Family
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What regulates Rho GTPases?
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Signaling from the external environment influences changes in the cytoskeleton, interpreted by Rho fam; Cell signaling or cell-cell communication
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_____ and _____ transduce signal downstream to some target response system
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Ligand and receptor
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What are Rho GTPases and what do they do?
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Enzymes that bind to both GDP and GTP, function as a switch to regulate downstream signaling by hydrolyzing GTP and changing the form it is bound to.
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What does Rho do?
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Promotes bundling with myocin into stress fibers
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What does Rac do?
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Promotes actin polymerization at periphery to form lamellipodia
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What does Cdc42 do?
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Promotes actin polymerization and bundling into filopodia or microspikes
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What are Rho, Rac and Cdc42?
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Rho GTPases
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What ultimately controls fast changes to the cytoskeleton?
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Differential regulation of Rho, Cdc42 and Rac
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Rho GTPases are conserved across phyla and function to reorganize the cytoskeleton but also regulate ...?
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exocytosis
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Rho GTPases regulate exocytosis in plants to asymmetrically position...?
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PIN transporters
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Rho GTPases can lead to tumorogenesis and metastasis, leading to...
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cancer
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Rho GTPases influence what three things?
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cell growth and proliferation, survival, and invasion/migration
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Where does a signal originate?
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Ligand
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Where is a signal received?
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Receptor
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What is the third step of signal transduction?
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The signal is transduced (passed on) to some specific target that will elicit a response.
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Chemical cell signaling can either be...
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close range (cell secretes signal, binds to its target cell's receptor) or very long range (circulatory system)
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Types of signalling include
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endocrine, paracrine, neuronal, contact dependent
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SOME SIGNALS AREN'T SECRETING. RECEPTOR TO RECEPTOR BINDING IS TOTALLY A THING. TRUE OR FALSE.
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TRUE!
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Break down cell communication. Righnow.
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Cell communication begins with a signaling molecule that is received by a receptor, which is then relayed through a series of protein conformational changes that result in a cellular response (gene expression, division, changes in cytoskeleton).
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Two choices of signaling based on desired speed of response:
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altered protein function vs. altered gene expression
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The same signal can cause very different responses in different specialized cell types. True or false? If true, give example
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TRUFAX. Acetyl choline plays different roles depending on the receptor and cell type it interacts with (heart, salivary gland, skeletal muscle)
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Synergizing signals enables complex behavioral responses to be carried out by...
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a relatively small repertoire of signals
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What are the two types of intracellular signaling complexes?
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Scaffolding proteins, enzymatic activity (creates binding sites to recruit proteins)
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What are some key protein binding domains that enable transduction?
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Phosphorylated inositol phospholipid, phosphotyrosine, proline-rich motif
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PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTIONS ARE
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SUPER FUCKING IMPORTANT
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What are the three classes of surface receptors?
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Ion-channel linked receptor, g-protein (need GTP bound to it to activate) linked receptors, enzyme-linked receptors (two linked)
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G-protein coupled receptors are...
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REALLY GREAT
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Ligand binding results in GTP dependent...
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activation of G-proteins.
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G-alpha-GTP stimulates WHAT
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adenyl cyclase to make cyclic AMP! Wooo! Superfast!
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What the fuck is cAMP?
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It's a 2nd messenger, goes to activate protein kinase A. IMAGINATIVE NAME WHAT WHAT. It phosphorylates TxFs to regulate gene expression.
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What does Galphas or Gs do?
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Activates adynylate cyclase to increase cAMP synthesis
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What does Galphai or Gi do?
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Inhibits adenylate cyclase
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What does Gq do?
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Stimulates phospholipase C
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In appropriate and continued activation of some of the Galpha subunits can cause disease, for instance...
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Cholera (cholera toxin inhibits Gs's ability to hydrolyze GTP, causing adenyl cyclase to be constantly active, lack of absorbing water=diarrhea) and Whooping cough (produces pertussis toxin that locks Gi into a GDP bound state, causing adenyl cyclase to be constantly active)
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What causes the release of Calcium?
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Phospholipase C.
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G-proteins through AD lead to...
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PKA activation (protein kinase a)
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G-proteins through PLC & IP3 lead to...
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PKC activation (protein kinase c)
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Like in a traditional cascade, Ca++ modifies one protein (Calmodulin) which enables it to modify other targets such as...
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CAM kinase which has been shown to play a role in learning and memory and maybe one contributing cause of autism.
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Oderant receptors are often GPCR that stimulate cAMP production, but in an olefactory neuron causing an ion channel to open resulting in...
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action potential that further relays the signal to the brain.
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Tyrosine is the amino acid that likes...
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to get phosphorylated. Hachacha.
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There are 7 subfamilies of RTK (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) whose ligand binding causes...
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dimerization and subsequent autophosphorylation events.
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RAS signaling leads to the activation of an elaborate cascade of phosphorylation events:
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MAP kinases (mitogen activated protein)
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Only outside exposure results in response, Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone receptors are positioned on...
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cell surface
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What is the endocrine system?
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The internal system of communication involving hormones and the molecular receptors on or in target cells
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What are the two classes of hormones?
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Water- and lipid-soluble
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Can water-soluble hormones pass through membranes?
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No. Require cell surface receptors
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Can lipid soluble hormones pass through membranes?
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Yes, freely. Receptors/targets typically inside cell.
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What is binary fission?
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A method of asexual reproduction by "division in half". In prokaryotes, binary fission does not involve mitosis, but in single-celled eukaryotes that undergo binary fission, mitosis is part of the process.
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What is the bacterial genome?
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A single circular DNA polymer termed the "Bacterial chromosome".
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Where does DNA replication of the bacterial chromosome begin?
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At single origin
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In bacterial replication, what happens to the two origins?
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they move to opposite "poles" of the cell
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What happens in bacterial replication after the two origins move to opposite poles of the cell?
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The cell doubles in size and the membrane grows inward to separate into two cells dividing the identical copies of the genome
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How do bacterial chromosomes separate to opposite poles?
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partitioning (parM) proteins (actin) push plasmids to opposite poles
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Eukaryotes are opposite of bacterial chromosomes because...
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tubulin moves DNA, actin divides
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There is a great diversity in the mechanisms and patterns of cell division. This is largely based on
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how to deal with or without a nucleus.
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What are the six stages of mitosis in order?
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Interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase&cytokinesis
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Describe interphase stage of mitosis.
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cell increases in size, DNA is replicated, centrosomes duplicate
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Describe prophase stage of mitosis.
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sister chromatid is condensed, mitotic spindle assembles
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Describe prometaphase stage of mitosis.
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nuclear envelope breaks down, chromosomes attach to spindle via kinetochore
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Describe metaphase stage of mitosis.
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sister chromatids are aligned midway between spindle poles
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Describe anaphase stage of mitosis.
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sister chromatids separate into two daughter chromosomes, chromosome is walked along MT as it shortens (at KCH end) (DYENEIN) releasing tubulin subunits, centrosomes move away from each other
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Describe telophase & cytokinesis stages of mitosis.
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daughter chromosomes reach poles, nuclear envelope reassembles, contractile ring pinches membrane, dividing cell in two
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What is the kinetochore and what does it do?
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a structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle
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During mitosis, how is poleward movement generated?
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the shortening of MT on the kinetochore end
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What is the kinetochore attached to?
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MT
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What are interpol microtubules?
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overlapping nonkinetochore MT
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What kind of motor proteins are required for poleward movement during spindle pole separation?
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Kinesins
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What is the contractile ring in mitosis made of?
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Actin MF
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Do plants have centrioles?
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Nope BUT their MT still organize around a center of something MYSTERIOUSSS
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What are the two principle stages of the cell cycle?
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S- (synthesis) and M- (mitosis)
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What do gap phases in the cell cycle do?
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Serve as checkpoints that assess the quality of internal and external conditions for successful propagation through the cycle.
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Where are the two gap-phases in the cell cycle?
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End of G1 and end of G2.
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What happens at gap-phase end of G1 (entering S-phase)?
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Trigger DNA replication machinery, replicate DNA: is environment favorable? Cell gets cue to divide (external signals)
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What happens at gap-phase end of G2 (entering M-phase)?
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is the DNA intact? is all DNA replicated? if yes, cell gets OK to divide
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What is an MPF? How is it controlled?
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Mitosis/maturation promoting factor: cyclin + cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk). Controlled by coordinated degradation of cyclin (cycling levels)
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What are the "3 key Ds" that control steps of the activity of the cyclin-cdk complex (MPF)?
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ddddegradation of cyclin, ddddephosphorylation of inhibitory PO4, ddddna damage (gap checkpoints- stop MPF)
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What carries out the degradation of cyclin?
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anaphase-promoting complex (APC)
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How does dephosphorylation of inhibitory phosphate work?
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Cdc25 phosphotase takes off an inhibitory phosphate group on Cdk: positive feedback loop
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How does DNA damage affect the cell cycle?
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Gap checkpoints; activate p53 and p21 forming an inhibitory protein that deactivates entire complex
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What can the 3 Ds lead to if misregulated?
|
Cancer (uncontrolled cell division)
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When genetic mutations occur in normal cells, what is the response?
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apoptosis (programmed cell death)
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What are the two types of mutations that can lead to cancer by giving one cell an advantage (which leads to a cascade)?
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overactivity vs. underactivity (functoinally eliminate tumor suppressor gene)
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What is necrosis?
|
Death of a cell where cell swells and breaks open, releases its contents and can damage neighboring cells and provoke inflammation (yucky)
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What is apoptosis?
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Death of a cell where cell shrinks with frequent membrane blebbing and DNA fragments, clean phagocytic event- benign
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How does apoptosis work after DNA damage?
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p53 flicks the switch to activate a series of proteolytic enzymes called CAPASE PROTEINS that chew up the cell (most malignant proteins possess a mutation in p53)
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What are the four types of tissues?
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Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
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Where is epithelial tissue found?
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covers outside of the body, lines organs and cavities within the body
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What is the most important factor in epithelial tissue?
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ORIENTATION
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What are the 3 shapes of epithelial tissue?
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cuboidal, columnar, squamous
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What are cuboidal epithelial arrangements like?
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dice-shaped, found in glandual tissue, good at secretion
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What are columnar epithelial arrangements like?
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bricks on end; secretes digestive juices, absorbs nutrients
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What is the most common lipid in the membrane?
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phosphotidylcholine, bitchezz
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What are simple squamous epithelial arrangements like?
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floor tiles; simple squamous supports diffusion of substances such as lung air sacs and around blood vessels
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What are stratified squamous epithelial arrangements like?
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floor tiles; support rapid regeneration by cell division and surface epitheliums such as skin and esophagus
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What are the six types of connective tissue?
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Loose (collagenous fiber), cartilage, fibrous (tendons, ligaments), adipose (fat), bone, blood
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What is the primary protein in connective tissue?
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COLLAGENNNN
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What makes collagen in bone?
|
Osteoplasts
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In skin and tendons, what makes collagen?
|
Fibroblasts
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What makes collagen in cartilage?
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Chondrocytes
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How is collagen organized?
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Single molecules are coiled and stacked together
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What are the three types of muscle tissue?
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Skeletal/striated, cardiac, smooth
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What does skeletal muscle tissue do?
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Controls voluntary movement
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What does cardiac muscle tissue do?
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Controls contraction of the heart
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What does smooth muscle tissue do?
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Controls involuntary body activities
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What do neurons do?
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transmit nerve impulses
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What factors result in differential communication between neurons?
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Amount of signalling, type firing, duration and pattern
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Why does action potential open calcium channels?
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stimulates vesicle fusion to synaptic membrane and release of neurotransmitters
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What is the conversion of neural signals?
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Electrical->chemical->electrical
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What helps shape neural transmission at the synapse?
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Calcium signaling through GLIAL transporters
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Do electrical currents flow faster through cytoplasm or ion channels?
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Much faster through cytoplasm than ion channels can open and close
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What is saltatory conductance?
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Current jumps from node to node (neural signaling)
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The more _____ cells wrapping, the faster the conductance in neural signaling.
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Schwann
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What connects the nerve signal to the muscle signal to allow muscle contraction?
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Tubes of membranes
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What is myosin?
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family of motor proteins helpful in muscle contraction
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What do glial cells do?
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Help nourish, insulate and replenish neurons
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The active export of sodium allows the import of...
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potassium
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Glucose and sodium are...
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friends forever on the extracellular side
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The sodium-potassium pump is...
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very neat
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